It is well known that thoughts and administration
measures of Zhou Gong (Duke of Zhou)周公 are the source of Confucianism.
However, Huang School is good at learning from other Schools, and has
absorbed the administration methods and political thoughts when Zhou
Gong ruled the adherents of Shang Dynasty. With the study of existing
and excavated documents, the paper conveys the idea that the
virtue-punishment thought of Huang School learns from the Zhou Gong’s
thought of “illustrate his virtue and be careful in the use of
punishments.” he put forward the idea of learning from and following the
administration methods of former ancient emperors of Shang Dynasty. He
regarded former wise emperors of Yin as models of governance. He knew
the history of Xia and Shang Dynasty, and learned from their experience,
and values the natural law. He used the methods of Shang Dynasty to
make enfeoffment, rites and calendar. These measures achieve great
effects. His thoughts and measures have great influence on the political
thoughts of Huang School. Of course, Huang School prevailed in the
Warring States of Period, and some thoughts did not exist in Zhou Gong’s
period.
Keywords:Zhou Gong; Huang School; Political thoughts; Adaptation
Throughout the ages, the systematic thoughts and
theories all experience the development from birth to completeness.
After a long time of practice, accumulation and assimilation, some
learned from others’ strong points to offset their weakness as time
advanced and things changed. It gradually becomes systematic, develops
into a metaphysical aspect, and eventually forms a complete systematic
theory including metaphysical theory and practice after continuous
improvement. It is true for both Confucianism and Taoism. After the
development of the pre-Qin period, Han, Wei, Jin, North and South
Dynasties, Sui, Tang, Song, Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasty, Confucianism
has absorbed different thoughts to have rich contents, and become the
mainstream in Chinese culture [1]. Taoism is no exception. It has the
complete metaphysical theory and practice that have great influence on
Chinese history. A theory will have great or small influence on other
theories, politic, economy, society, academy, art and history in
different aspects. Meanwhile, these mutual influences can be positive or
negative [2]. In the whole humanistic society, all factors interplay.
Issues and Academic Contributions of this Paper
This paper mainly solves a problem: as Zhou Gong, who
has an important influence on Chinese traditional culture and has an
important position, in addition to having an important influence on
Confucianism, he also has a great influence on the pre-Qin Taoism,
especially his influence on the Huang School. Huang School is one of the
Huang Lao School. The Huang and Lao have the same and different ideas.
Scholars often confuse the two. However, if you read the related texts
in pre-Qin and Han dynasties carefully, you will find that there is a
difference between Huang School and Lao School. This article is to
explore the influence of Zhou Gong on Huang school’s thought. The author
has checked relevant papers at home and abroad in China, and almost
none of them have devoted to this. This article discusses the influence
of Zhou Gong on Huang School, one fills the space of Zhou Gong’s
research, and the other distinguishes the internal differences in Huang
Lao School, which is quite innovative in academic research.
In terms of politics including politicians and political events, Zhou Gong is an important figure in the early of Zhou Dynasty1.
He has thoughts in politic, society, ethic and military. As the
founder of Chinese culture and pre-Qin theory [3], he established
the social ethic, individual morality and concept of land under
Heaven, advocated rule by rites, virtue and civilization, and
worshiped Hou-ji and emperor Wen. His words and deeds have
great influence on the future academic theory, politic and political
system. He has influence on not only Confucianism but other
theories including Huang School.
Every systematic theory is good at learning from others’
strong points and offset their weakness to better its own theory,
improve its level and strengthen its depth, which is also true for
Taoism. It has absorbed different theories especially in political
theory, and doesn’t neglect the influential figures in history. When
scholars explore the origin of Huang School, Zhou Gong should
not be neglected. Weihua, Runtian [4] think that Huang School
originated from the legend related to the Yellow Emperor in
the Spring and Autumn Period. Xi [5] believes that the study of
Huang-Lao is related to Fan Li. Xi and Kangsheng [6] both believe
that the study of Huang-Lao originated from Laozi. During the
development of Huang-Lao political theory, it has many theory
origins. Author believes that some Zhou Gong’s theory should
be one of the origins of political theory of Huang School, which it
has absorbed [7]. The paper will talk about the influence of Zhou
Gong’s words and deeds and administration on political theory
of Huang School, and provide a new perspective for the origin of
Huang School and origin of Confucianism and Taoism.
Before the political theory of Huang School is talked about, the
relations among Taoism, Huang School and Lao Thoughts should
be discussed. Generally, Taoism refers to the school and group that
express their academic purpose, including Huang-Lao School, but
Huang-Lao School can’t cover Taoism fully [8]2. Huang-Lao School
is the general term for Huang School and Lao Thoughts. They are
two schools of Taoism in pre-Qin and have different and similar
thoughts. Scholars believe that lost ancient Lao Zi, Jing Fa or Four
Classics of Hunag Emperor (hereinafter referred as Four Classics)
are the important classics of Huang School. The Huang School in
the paper is quoted only from this book. According to the study, it is
hard to tell which came first. They have similar thought on Taoism,
but have difference in applying Tao into society and politic. Lao Zi
emphases that “It should keep to the role of the female” [9] and
“The submissive and weak will overcome the hard and strong”
(1982:53). Four Classics advocates “discriminating between
feminine and masculine conduct” (Chang et al., 1998:163). Lao Zi talks
about the Tao not laws, and emphases that “The way never
acts yet nothing is left undone” [9]. The chapter of Tao and Laws
emphases that “It is out of Tao that the law come into being [10],
and no success comes without struggle, and values laws. Lao Zi
values nature, and believes that it should “keep people innocent of
knowledge and free from desire” [9]. Four Classics acknowledges
the effect of human, and believes that human can conform to
nature to change it. Four Classics values judging status, while Lao
Zi doesn’t [11].
Although there are similarities and difference between Huang
School and Lao School, they care called together as Huang-Lao
School. There are two reasons for this. The first one is they are
not differentiated from each other in The Grand Scribe’s Records.
The second one is that Lao is used to replace Huang, and books of
Huang School are not available. From generation to generation, it
is not being corrected (1989:152).
Besides, because of the close relation between Zhou Gong
and political theory of Huang School, the paper will introduce the
political theory of Huang Thought first. Scholars believe that the
Tao in the “On Principle of Six Schools3” written by Sima Tan refers
to Huang School [12]. The Huang School he talked about is concise
and clear:
“The doctrine of Taoism proclaims that people should
concentrate their attention on activities and take action with
empty forms, and meanwhile the essence is to nurture the nature
of all things on the earth. Besides a reference to what Yin-Yang
says about the seasonal alteration, Taoism has found its way to
obtain the merits of Confucianism and Mo Tzu (Mo Zi), to extract
the essence of Ming Chia (Ming Jia) and Fa Chia (Fa Jia) and to
evolve compatible with the current situation. Therefore, the creed
of Taoism can easily exert its force on almost everything with a
good understanding of the simple intention so that a minimal
effort can produce a maximal effect [13].”
“The term “Wu Wei” is rendered in Taoism as “doing
nothing”
and “Wu Bu Wei” as “accomplishing everything”. Although the
notion of the two terms is too profound to comprehend, what
it advocates is easy to implement. The theoretical foundation
of Taoism is emptiness so that it has neither external forms nor
constant state, which will enable it to explore the reasonable
nature of all things only if it applies itself in a practical way and
obeys the nature law. This kind of emptiness is depicted as the
Tao, which can be the governing principle of all things, because it
neither surpasses everything nor lags behind. The rules within the Tao
are not postulated but cater to the needs of situation
and the dimension of the Tao should contain the varied forms
of all things. So, the reason why the achievements of the sage
are indelible in spite of the elapsing time is that they accomplish
things in tune with times. Emptiness is the eternal rule of the
Tao and the adaptation of times is the elementary step for an
emperor to tackle the national affairs. The emperor should have
a clear idea about the distinction between honest courtiers and
sycophantic ones. A person is lively with ardent spirit that resides
in the physical form of the body. The overuse of spirit will make
it exhausted and the overwork of the physical body will cause it
collapsing. What’s worse, an isolation of spirit from the physical
body means death. Once the isolation takes effect, it cannot be
restored to its original state just as the dead cannot come to life
again, so the sage has paid great attention to both the spirit and
the body. In this regard, the physical form supports life while spirit
is the fundamental force that endows life with vitality. Without the
mental and physical tranquility, it is a hollow and preposterous to
say that “I have an efficient way to manage the world.” But how
can you start without spirit and body to rely on?” (2004:6338).
1Most of the documents in the early Zhou
Dynasty are related to Shangshu: Book of Zhou. Scholars also call it as
Dagao, Kanggao, Jiugao, Zicai, Zhaogao, Luogao, Duoshi, Wuyi, Junshi,
Duofang and Lizheng, which directly record the words and deeds of Zhou
Gong. For more details, please refer to Gu Jiegang, Liu Qihua, On the
Annotation and Translation of Shangshu, Beijing, Zhonghua Book, 2005; Du
Yong, Study on Eight Admonitions of the Early Zhou Dynasty, Beijing,
China Social Sciences Press, 1998, pp. 8-91.
2More discussions about Taoism, please
refer to Creel HG (1956) What is Taoism. Journal of the American
oriental Society (JAOS) 76(3): 139- 152.
3Smith K (1992) in “The Concept of ‘Six
Schools’ Created by Sima Tan” (Chinese Culture, No. 2) points out that
for the first time in the history of Chinese thought, Sima Tan used “家”
to refer to different schools. Taoism is a new comprehensive category.
In the essay, Sima Tan mainly talks about political theory. He
believes that Huang School has the merits of Confucianism, Mo
Tzu (Mo Zi), Ming Chia (Ming Jia), Fa Chia (Fa Jia) and Yin Yang. Its
thoughts are as followed.
First, “emptiness” and “action with empty forms”. “Emptiness”
refers to the objective laws and rules. “Action with empty forms”
means that all activities (cultivation, behavior and administration)
of emperors should conform to the objective laws including
natural law. Emperors should consider the natural law as the
foundation of social order and rule the country [14]. Emperors
need not add or reduce their own desire, but could nurture the
nature of all things on the earth. This involves the relation among
emperors’ administration learning from natural law, the concept
of “three talents” and politic [15].
Second, “Adaptation”. Therefore, the creed of Taoism can easily
exert its force on almost everything with a good understanding
of the simple intention so that a minimal effort can produce a
maximal effect. The wise emperors should follow the objective
laws, but as the things (time and objective things) change, it
applies itself in a practical way and obeys the nature law. Emperors
should conform to the objective situations in action. Emperors
should change as the situation changes, enable to explore the
reasonable nature of all things, master the nature of all things,
comply with the changes of everything and take “adaptation as
the foundation. So, the adaptation of times is the elementary step
for an emperor to tackle the national affairs. Adaptation is the
important content of Taoism. Huang School emphasizes that in
administration, the emperor should do nothing, and the subjects
should do their duties, and the emperor should own the rights of
reward and punishment. The emperor should have a clear idea
about the distinction between honest courtiers and sycophantic
ones. The subjects should do their own duties and show their
talents. The emperor needs reward the virtuous and talented
people and punish the mediocre and the disloyal. This is the
Thought of Emperor Judges and subjects work and the thought of
reward and punishment [15].
Third, keep the spirit and physical body. “The purpose of this
is to make the emperor rest the spirit and body. A person is lively
with ardent spirit that resides in the physical form of the body. The
overuse of spirit will make it exhausted and the overwork of the
physical body will cause it collapsing. What’s worse, an isolation
of spirit from the physical body means death. Once the isolation
takes effect, it cannot be restored to its original state just as the
dead cannot come to life again, so the sage has paid great attention
to both the spirit and the body.” In this regard, the physical form
supports life while spirit is the fundamental force that endows life
with vitality. The emperor understands that the goal of politic is
to ensure the rest of his spirit and body without much overuse. So,
Huang School puts forward the theory of keeping the spirit and
body of the emperor [15].
So, for the political theory of Huang School, Sima Tan believed
that the emperor should comply with the natural law and master
the objective situation to conform to the changes, and use
“adaptation” to ensure the rest of spirit and body. This is the key
points of political theory of Huang School [16].
The above-mentioned is the political theory of Huang School,
which has been influenced by Zhou Gong. Generally, scholars
believe that Taoism and Jiang Ziya are closely related, and Zhou
Gong has a close relation with Confucianism, which can be seen
from the opinions of Ban Gu. The category of Taoism in Han Zhi
has recorded 237 essays. Ban Gu considered Tai Gong as one of
the Taoist [17]. Historical Records has recorded that “when T’aikung
arrived at his state, he cultivated administration, adapted
their social customs, simplified their social codes” [13]. And
it also has recorded that Jiang Ziya said: “I simplified the ritual
codes between the lord and his vassals. I followed its customs in
governing” (2004:2287). It is obvious that “adapting their social
customs” and “following its customs” are the important measures
of Jiang Ziya’s administration, which are also vital contents of
political theory of Taoism. During his administration, he valued
“adaptation”, and this is why Ban Gu considered him as one of the
Taoist. So, it is seen that Ban Gu believed that “adaptation” is an
important part of Taoism.
In fact, Zhou Gong’s words and deeds have great influence on
the political theory of Huang School. The paper will discuss about
it from the following aspects.
Influence of Zhou Gong’s thought of “illustrate virtue
and be careful in the use of punishments” on the virtue
and punishment of Huang School
Zhou Gong’s thought of “illustrate virtue and be careful in the
use of punishments”
“Illustrating virtue and be careful in the use of punishments”
is the important content of Zhou Gong’s political thoughts. It is
in the chapter of “The Announcement of Kangshu”. In this essay,
Zhou Gong warned Kang Shu that “Your father, great and bright
King Wen, advocated moral education, cautiously employed
punishments but he did not bully and oppressed those who were
helpless, he employed those who might be employed, respected
those who might be respected, and threatened those who might
be threatenable, it was his rule to respect and love people” [18].
Scholars have different explanation of “illustrate virtue and be
careful in the use of punishments”. In the Spring and Autumn
Period, Sheng Gong thought that it meant that the monarch should
not have sexual conduct [19]. Shangshu quoted Zi Xia’s words to
explain that “be careful in the use of punishments” meant that the
monarch should think about the punishment really carefully [20].
Pseudo-Confucius Biography believed that putting virtuous one in
an important position was as vital as being careful in the use of
punishments (2011:647). Kong Yingda [21] thought “illustrating
virtue” as “using virtue”, which meant the virtuous ones. Sun
Xingyan [22] and Wang Xianqian [20] regarded “be careful in
the use of punishments” as probation. Modern scholars such as
Jianhua [23] and Yubo [24] think that “illustrate virtue” requires
that the emperor needs to improve moral cultivation, and “valuing
virtue” is for protecting people. All these opinions are different
from the original meaning of “illustrating virtue and be careful in
the use of punishments”.
When scholars discuss about the virtue in “illustrate virtue”,
they always stick to morality. In fact, the meaning of virtue has
a development process in pre-Qin Period. In Shang Dynasty, it
meant following, gain, behavior, regulation and laws. In Western
Zhou, it meant the God will-emperor-people relation, moral
conduct and good thoughts. In the Spring and Autumn Period,
it meant the virtuous men, morality rules, external criterion,
ritual culture, culture and education, national destiny, and good
diplomatic relations (Zhao-gui, Year? 243-253)4.
fffff4
When Zhou Gong put forward the thought of “illustrate
virtue and be careful in the use of punishments”, he opposed
the virtue and punishment. Virtue meant to do someone a favor
and soften someone. “Illustrate virtue” was Zhou Gong’s ruling
measure of winning people over, and didn’t mean his virtue and
morality cultivation. Punishment was the opposite if virtue,
which meant the compulsory punishing measures. In the chapter
“The Announcement of Kangshu”, Zhou Gong put forward the
principles and implementing guideline of punishment, including
being careful in the use of punishment, opposing punishment to
kill the innocent, heavy sentence to criminals that commit crimes
on purpose and recidivists and light sentence to the criminals with
negligence and causal offenders, abolishing collective punishment
and cruel torture, opposing random punishment and killing, and
advocating proper punishment.
Zhou Gong’s virtue and punishment thought was still used in
the Spring and Autumn Period. They often compared the virtue
and punishment. In “Twenty-Fifth Year of Duke Xi” in Zuo Zhuan,
it is said that “It is virtue by which the people of the Middle State
are cherished; it is by severity that the wild tribes around are
awed.” In “Twelfth Year of Duke Xuan” in Zuo Zhuan it is said that
“when it submitted, be forgave it－his kindness and justice were
established. There was the justice of punishment in the attack
of revolt; there was the kindness of virtue in the gentle dealing
with submission. Both these things were shown” [19]. Virtue
and punishment are two aspects of political principles in the
Spring and Autumn Period, which was called virtue-punishment
principle [25].
Zhou Gong valued virtue and illustration. Book of Zhou
records that Zhou Gong liked to use illustration, such as
“illustrate virtue”, “show a great discrimination”, “give them bright
distinction”, “the enlightener and sustainer”, and “shines brightly”
there are also some in Chinese bronze inscriptions, such as
“illustrate regulations”, illustrate virtue, “show Heart”, “illustrate
punishment” and “shines brightly” [26]5. It also uses “illustrate
punishment” in Huang Men [27]. In Mister Lv’s Spring and Autumn
Annals, it says that illustration exists because of ration [28]. Zhou
Gong used the “Ming” frequently. He emphasized the human’s
ration and the ability of ration, and distinguished his thought and
administration measures from that of Yin people to emphasize the
importance of the thought of “illustrate virtue and be careful in
the use of punishments” to rule country and suppress rebellion in
the critical period [29]. Besides, in the documents of Qin and Han
Dynasty, “Ming” has the religious meaning, and maybe reflects
the ancient worship of light. Zhou Gong emphasized the destiny
of Heaven and valued the “illustrate virtue”. In Heaven, “de” was
called “virtue of Heaven”, and on earth, it was called “illustrate
virtue” [30]. “Virtue of Heaven” meant that people were endowed
with “virtue of Heaven”, which was a religious and political words
[31]. Obviously, Zhou Gong transformed the “illustrate virtue”
from a religious word to a political word, and granted it with new
meaning.
4On the development of the connotation of
“Virtue” in the pre-Qin Dynasty, please refer to Fulin C (2005) The
Origin and Development of the Concept of “Virtue” in Pre-Qin Period.
China Social Sciences, 4. Delong L (2013) A Study of the Origin of
“Virtue” in Pre-Qin Period (PhD’s thesis).Jilin University.
5For more information, please refer to The
Anthology of Bronze Inscriptions of Yin and Zhou Dynasties. Beijing:
Zhonghua Book Company, 1984.
Besides, the punishment in “be careful in the use of
punishments” should include penalty. In the chapter “The
Announcement of Kangshu”, it says that “you must see that those
punishments, as well as the penalty of death, be righteous”, which
means the rational punishment and penalty of death [32]. In the
chapter “No Ease”, it says that “(your ministers will imitate you)
so the correct laws of the former emperors, both small and great,
will be changed and disordered”. In Pseudo-Confucius Biography, it
explains the punishment as law [21]. Liu Qihua [18] believed that
punishment and penalty were the same. In a word, the meaning
of “illustrate virtue and be careful in the use of punishments”
is to not only benefit people, but also be careful when using the
punishments and laws. Different methods need be adapted in the
administration of Yin people.
Combination of virtue and punishment of Huang School
Political theory of Huang School advocates the combination
of virtue and punishment, and appreciation of civil and military.
Four Classics advocates handling their relation from the theory of
Yin and Yang, and believes that they supplement each other. In the
chapter “Investigation”, it says that “Instead, rectify affairs with
punishments and rewards (by bestowal of benefits). Spring and
summer are the seasons for reward; autumn and winter are the
seasons for punishment. Give priority to virtue over punishment
in order to nourish life…So brilliantly evident are punishment
and reward as are the sun and moon set in turn to illuminate
according to the brilliance proper to each, and to wax [and wane]
without error…the ruler above and the subjects below will be in
great harmony and both will satisfy their ambitions. Heaven will
complete (these) in accordance with (their natural tendencies).
Nourishing the affairs of people according to the right timing, and
giving priority to reward rather than punishment, are following
Heaven” [11]. In the chapter “Contention of Clans”, there are
similar words, saying that “The supreme measures of rectification
are punishment and reward. So, manifests are punishment and
reward that they are like the sun and the moon calling on each
other (in coordinated complementarity) …Manifest as the reward
of Heaven is, it cannot function without punishment. Awesome
as the punishment of Heaven is, it will lose its efficacy without
reward. Punishment and reward nourish one another and
thereby the distinction between compliance and rebelliousness
is established” (1989:300). Four Classics puts the virtue and
punishment together, showing that they are the ruling tools.
Virtue is the opposite meaning punishment, which is reward in
chapter “Er Bing” of Han Fei Zi. It points out that “what virtue
and punishment are? Killing is punishment and reward is virtue.
Subjects are afraid of punishment but enjoy virtue. So, when
emperors are good at using virtue and punishment, the subjects
will fear his power and respect him” [33]. Han Feizi was influenced
by Huang-Lao School. The virtue and punishment are important
concepts of Huang School, and it is an important method for
emperors to rule their subjects. Huang School advocates virtue
before punishment, and virtue over punishment.
Besides the combination of virtue and punishment, Huang
School also advocate the appreciation of “wen” and “wu”. In the
chapter “Correct emperorship”, it defines the meaning of “wen” and
“wu”. It says that following the vitality of life ordained by Heaven
to nourish life is called wen (governing by civil administration).
“Following the (destiny) of death ordained by Heaven to
administer the severe sanction of death to those who should be
killed is called wu (governing by coercive administration). If both
[wen] and wu function well, then all-under-Heaven will obey the
ruler” [11]. “Wen” means that people can get a rest and emperor
should promote the policies of benefiting people. “Wu” refers to
the armed suppression and attack. And it means that the emperor
should overthrow the evil government with righteous power. The
emperor should use both, overthrowing the evil government with
force to expand his lands and promoting people-benefit policies to
win people’s support. And in this way can he rule all the lands. “If
one is performing the ways of wen and wu carefully, one will gain
the allegiance of all peoples under Heaven” (1989:251). “Wen”
and “wu” are two methods for an emperor to rule all the lands.
During the relation between virtue, and punishment and
“wen” and “wu”, “wen” is the manifestation of virtue, and “wu”
is the representation of punishment, so the relation between
“wen” and “wu” is dominated by the relation between virtue and
punishment [11]. According the above-mentioned, “wen” refers to
the people-benefit policies and conciliation policy, and “wu” refers
to the armed form of suppressing rebellion and overthrowing evil
government. “Wen” and “wu” are the two methods of governance
and ruling all lands. So, the meaning of “wen” and “wu” is larger
than that of virtue and punishment.
Influence of Zhou Gong’s thought of “illustrate virtue and
be careful in the use of punishments” on the combination of
virtue and punishment of Huang School
According to the above-mentioned, the virtue in thought of
“illustrate virtue and be careful in the use of punishments” has
the same meaning as the virtue in Huang School. Both refer to
the conciliating reward measures adapted by emperors. Zhou
Gong’s thought of “illustrate virtue and be careful in the use of
punishments” has direct influence on the combination of virtue
and punishment of Huang School.
Besides, from the development of virtue’s meaning, the
influence of Zhou Gong’s thought of virtue on Huang School can
be seen. The meaning of Zhou Gong’s virtue includes original
virtue, emperor virtue, people virtue, ancestor virtue, etiquette,
and people’s mind and thoughts (Zhao-gui, Year:253-266). In
summary, virtue includes politics, religion, society and selfcultivation.
Zhou Gong implemented these virtues in order to
consolidate the emperorship given by Heaven, so he put forward
the thought of “illustrate virtue and be careful in the use of
punishments” in the hope of getting the support of Zhou people
and Shang people to secure the emperorship [34]. Four Classics
was written in the Warring States Period, and the thought of virtue was
affected. Besides inheriting and developing Zhou Gong’s thought of
“illustrate virtue and be careful in the use of
punishments”, it has both metaphysical theory and practice.
Metaphysical theory means that virtue falls on everything from
its nature - Tao. This is a basic common recognition that Taoism in
pre-Qin Period has for virtue.
Zhou Gong put forward the thought of “careful punishment”,
which meant the principles and criterion of using punishments
and. Penalty and punishment had the same meaning. In Er Ya, it
says that punishment is law, so law and punishment have same
meaning. Huang-Lao School in pre-Qin period values punishment,
and one of contents of punishment is law. Huang School also
value law, emphasizing that law is born from Tao. In the chapter
“Tao and Laws”, it says that “It is out of Tao that the law come
into being. These laws, prescribed according to calculus of gains
and losses, are yardsticks to measure and to distinguish what
is correct from what is incorrect” [10]. Law is metaphysical and
scared, and transcends politic and times to have independence,
transcendence and fairness. “Laws and regulations represent the
supreme rectitude” (1998:112). With law, the right and wrong
can be told. “The distinction between right and wrong should be
determined by laws. One should be empty and quiet (to be able)
to listen carefully so as to accord with the laws” (1998:143). If
everything conforms to the law and fairness, emperors and lawexecutors
are very important. So, in Law, it emphasizes that “those
who formulate laws and regulations are not allowed to create
confusion (in given priority)” (1998:112)，and “only one who is
(devoted to) the common good without selfishness and can see
and know without confusion” (1998:142). “Only when the law
is executed fairly without selfish desire can the country be ruled
effectively. Only when pure impartiality without self-interest (is
given priority), and all punishments and rewards are fully carried
out” (1998:112). So, Huang School on law has inherited the Zhou
Gong’s thought of “careful punishment”.
Influence of Zhou Gong’s administration measure on
political thought of Huang School
The paper will talk about influence of Zhou Gong’s
administration measures on the politic.
Zhou Gong learns from the ruling experience of emperors
of Shang Dynasty, studies its law, and critically accepts its
traditions
Wei district was the old capital of Shang Dynasty, and its
adherents lived here. It was hard to rule them. Zhou Gong enfeoffed
his brother, Kangshu, to this land. Before leaving, he warned him
carefully. Besides putting forward the thought of “illustrate virtue
and be careful in the use of punishments”, he also required Kangshu
to learn from Shang Dynasty’s experience. “Now your management
of the people will depend on your reverently following your father
Wen; --do you carry out his virtuous words which you have heard,
and clothe yourself with them. Moreover, where you go, seek out
among the traces of the former wise emperors of Yin what you
may use in protecting and regulating their people. Again, you must
more remotely study the old accomplished men of Shang, that you
may establish your Heart, and know how to instruct the people.
Further still, you must seek out besides what is to be learned of
the wise emperors of antiquity, and employ it in tranquillizing
and protecting the people. Finally, enlarge your thoughts to the
comprehension of all Heavenly principles, and virtue will be richly
displayed in your person, so that you will not render nugatory the
emperor’s charge.” Zhou Gong requires Kangshu to use the people
of Shang Dynasty, listen to their suggestion of ruling country, and
seek the governance of ancient wise emperors to gain the method
of protecting people. In this way, the people in Wei district can live
a happy life and the emperor’s order will not be neglected.
Zhou Gong regarded former wise emperors of Yin as models
of governance. He said, “When I think clearly of the people, I
see that they are to be led to happiness and tranquility. I think
of the virtue of the former wise emperors of Yin, whereby they
tranquillized and regulated the people, and rouse myself to realize
it. Moreover, the people now were sure to follow a leader. If one
do not lead them, he could not be said to exercise a government in
their State” [35]. He emphasized that whether the life of people is
improved, they all must study and master the way of ruling people
like the former wise emperors of Yin and use them successfully.
Tang was the one he needs to learn from. In the chapter “An
Announcement for Many Countries”, Zhou Gong praised Tang that
“he paid careful attention to the essential virtue of a sovereign, in
order to stimulate the people, and they on their part imitated him,
and were stimulate” (1991:498). He praised that Tang is careful
in the use of punishment, and people were moved and learn to
do good deeds. He punished the criminals and people were afraid
and try do good deeds. In the chapter “The Establishment of
Governmental Institute”, Zhou Gong praised that Tang used three
talented subjects and the virtuous ones. “Tang employed to fill
the three high positions those who were equal to those positions;
and those who were called possessors of the three grades of
ability could display that ability. He then studied them severely
and greatly imitated them, use the utmost of them in their three
positions and with their three grades of ability. The people in the
cities of Shang were thereby all brought to harmony, and those in
the different quarters of the empire were brought greatly under
the influence of the virtue thus displayed” (1991:512-513). He
praises that Tang can use the three talented subjects and other
virtuous ones, so that he can “rule with folded hands”. Emperors
rules using the right ones, the subjects take their responsibilities,
and everyone is on his own duty. This is the ideal politic of
Confucianism and Taoism.
Zhou Gong knew history and valued tradition including
the tradition of Shang and Zhou Dynasty. In the chapter “The
Announcement of Banning Wine”, it says that “let the young
also Hearken diligently to the constant lessons of their fathers.
Let them look at virtuous actions whether great or small in the
same light” (1991:403). He demanded Kangshu to remember the
lessons from ancient generations, and promote all traditional
virtues. He valued the tradition of Zhou clan and had a critical
attitude to the tradition from Yin clan. Zhou Dynasty replaced
the Shang Dynasty, and they could not only follow the political
tradition of Yin clan, but also promote policies to rule the Yin
people. One feature of politic in Shang Dynasty is valuing law and
punishment. In the Book of Rites, it says that Yin people respect
the god and lead its people to serve the god; the ghost is before the
rite and punishment before reward. This show that Shang Dynasty
values law and punishment. In the chapter “The Announcement
of Kangshu”, Zhou Gong emphasizes that “in things beyond your
immediate jurisdiction, have laws set forth which the officers
may observe; and those should be the panel laws of Yin, which
be right-ordered” (1991:390), and “in setting forth the business
of the laws, the punishments will be determined by the regular
laws of Yin. But you must see that those punishments, as well as
the penalty of death, be righteous” (1991:391). This requires that
when Kang Shu handles the cases, besides the regular law of Shang
Dynasty, he needs to take the reasonable law and punishment. The
reason that Zhou Gong values the law of Shang Dynasty is because
he wanted to master the key points of laws of Shang Dynasty and
learn its advantages to transform laws of Shang Dynasty into the
laws of Zhou Dynasty. This is his smartness.
Zhou Gong’s administration measure of following the
tradition of Shang Dynasty
Zhou Gong followed the tradition of Shang Dynasty of
enfeoffment
After overthrowing the Shang Dynasty, Zhou Gong relocated
the Yin clan to different enfeoffment areas. Their clan groups and
orders were not collapsed but kept. In Zuo Zhuan, Zi-yu talked
about the enfeoffment:
When emperor Woo had subdued Shang, emperor Ch’ing
completed the establishment of the new dynasty, and chose and
appointed [the princes of] intelligent virtue, to act as bulwarks
and screens to Chow (Zhou). Hence it was that the duke of Chow
gave his aid to the royal House for the adjustment of all the
emperordom, he being most dear and closely related to Chow.
To the duke of Loo (Pih-K’in, the duke of Chow’s son) there were
given －a grand chariot, a grand flag with dragons on it, the hwangstone
of the sovereigns of Hea (Xia), and the [great bow], Fan-Joh
of Fung-foo. [The Heads of ] six clans of the people of Yin,－the
Teaou, the Sea, the Senou, the Soh, the Chang-choh, and the Wechoh,
were ordered to lead the chiefs of their kindred, to collect
their branches, the remoter as well as the near, to conduct the
multitude of their connexions, and to repair with them to Chow,
to receive instructions and laws of the duke of Chow. They were
then charged to perform duty in Loo, which thus the brilliant
virtue of the duke of Chow might be made illustrious. Lands
[also] were apportioned [to the duke of Loo] on an enlarged
scale, with priests, superintendents of the ancestral temple,
diviners, historiographers, all the appendages of State, the
tablets of historical records, the various officers and the ordinary
instruments of their offices. The people of Shang-yen were also
attached, and a charge was given to Pih-K’in, and the old capital
of Shaou-Haou was assigned as the centre of his State. To K’ang
Shuh (The first marquis of Wei) there were given a grand carriage,
four flags,－of various colored silks, of red, of plain silk, and
ornamented with feathers,－and [bell], Ta-leu, with seven clans of
the people of Yin,－the T’aou, the She, the Po, the E, the Fan, the
Ke, and the Chung-k’wei. The boundaries of his territory extended
from Woo-foo southwards to the north of Poo-teen. He received
a portion of the territory of Yew-yen, that he might discharge his
duty to the emperor, and a portion of the lands belonging to the
eastern capital of Seang-t’oo, that he might be able the better to
attend at the emperor’s journeys to the east. Tan Ke delivered to
him the land, and T’sou Shuh the people. The charge was given
to him, as contained in the ‘Announcement to K’ang,’ and the
old capital of Yin was assigned as the centre of his State. Both in
Wei and Loo they were to commence their govt. according to the
principles of Shang, but their boundaries were defined according
to the rules of Chow (Zhou). To T’ang Shuh (The first lord of Tsin)
there were given a grand carriage, the drum of Meihseu, the
Keueh-kung mail, the bell Koo-seen, 9 clans of the surname Hwae,
and five presidents over the different departments of office. The
charge was given to him, as contained in the ‘Announcement of
T’ang (New lost),’ and the old capital of Hea (Xia) was assigned as
the centre of his State. He was to commence his govt. according
to the principles of Hea (Xia), but his boundaries were defined
by the rules of the Jung. Those three princes were all younger
brothers, but they were possessed of excellent virtue, and they
were therefore distinguished by those grants of territory and
other things [35].”
Zhou Gong made the enfeoffment of Lu, Wei, and Tang
country,
and granted them with lands, positions, and people of Yin sixth
clan and seventh clan that are skilled one, craftsmen and people
of Huai clan, cars, religion things, weapons, and jade objects.
These the Yin clan moved as a whole. Shirakawa Shizuka [36]
pointed out that this Yin clan still kept their form and order, and
pronounced the ruling policies that “they were to commence their
govt. according to the principles of Shang, but their boundaries
were defined according to the rules of Chow (Zhou).” Xu Zhuoyun
[37] has the same opinion. He believed that Zhou Dynasty used
the combination of Zhou Dynasty, Shang Dynasty and oriented
old groups as the basic principles of administration, and they use
the policies of Xia, Shang, and Jung to humour the local culture.
Author agrees with Chao Yuepei’s opinion. He said that “(Both in
Wei and Loo) they were to commence their govt. according to the
principles of Shang, but their boundaries were defined according
to the rules of Chow (Zhou).” And “he was to commence his govt.
according to the principles of Hea (Xia), but his boundaries were
defined by the rules of the Jung.” That “their boundaries were defined
according to the rules of Chow (Zhou)” means that in terms
of land management, they adapted the agricultural production
methods of Zhou Dynasty and following their production and
operation methods instead of changing their long-standing living
habits. That “he was to commence his govt. according to the
principles of Hea (Xia)” is to adapt the living habits of Jung in the
early of Dynasty and keep the order. The rules of Zhou and Jung
are different land rules, namely agriculture and stock farming.
Tang Shu promoted the rule of Jung to respect the living habits of
nomadism [38].
When Zhou Gong made the enfeoffment, he followed the
tradition of Shang Dynasty. Besides the clan groups, he also let
them have their own faith, like altar of Poh in Lu country. In 496
BC, “Yang Hoo imposed another covenant on the duke and the 8
Hwan clans at the altar of Chow (Zhou)) and one upon the people
at the altar of Poh” [35]. He aimed to gain the support of Yin people
[39]. So, we can see that from the early of Zhou Dynasty to the end,
Yin people in State of Lu still had their clan group and faith.
The State of Qi is considered as the one to use the method of
following tradition. The Grand Scribe’s Records has recorded that
when Jiang Ziya arrived at the State of Qi, he followed the tradition,
simplified the etiquette, developed industry and provided
convenience for the fish and salt industry. People preferred the
State of Qi [13]. The following tradition means to keeping the
custom and habits of original residents. Simplifying the etiquette
means keeping their rite system instead of promoting the rites of
Zhou Dynasty. Oriented area has old clans. State of Qi followed its
customs and habit of inheriting the family name, and organized
the mixed ruling powers [37]. Obviously, the administration of
Jiang Ziya followed the customs of original residents, which is the
same in principle as State of Lu’s commencing his govt. according
to the principles of Shang, and State of Jin’s commence his govt.
according to the principles of Xia.
hou Gong knew that promoting the method of following
tradition could help them gain their positions and achieve better
governance. Shuo Yuan recorded the words that Zhou Gong
warned his son -- Bo Qin in State of Lu with much meaning of
Taoism. He said that it is noble for the ones in high positions that
could protect the humble, it is smart for the majority to protect
the fear ones, and it is reasonable for the smart ones to protect
the fool. All these are the virtue of modesty. And he quoted from
the chapter “Khien” in the Book of Change that “it is the way of
Heaven to diminish the full and augment the humble. It is the way
of earth to overthrow the full and replenish the humble. Spiritual
and beings inflict calamity on the full and bless the humble. It is
the way of men to hate the full and love the humble” [40]. The
“Khien” is a work in the Warring State Period [41]. The words are
quoted from the Khien by later generation to show that Zhou Gong
valued modesty. Modesty is valued by Confucianism and Taoism,
and they have similar origin of that. This also shows the influence
of Zhou Gong’s thought on Taoism.
Zhou Gong’s other measures of ruling Yin people
Besides the above-mentioned measures of following Shang
Dynasty’s rules in his administration, Zhou Gong also followed
Shang Dynasty’s rule in other aspects to achieve success. Zhou
Gong appointed some nobility of Shang Dynasty, and in the chapter
“The Announcement of Kangshu”, it says that “from the Hou, Teen,
Nan, Ts’ae, and Wei domains, the various officers stimulated this
harmony of the people, and introduced them to the business there
was for Chow (Zhou). The duke of Chow (Zhou) encouraged all
to diligence.” “Bo min” refers to the Yin people relocating to City
of Luo and they take positions in the government. In the chapter
“The Announcement of Zhaogong”, it says that “after seven days,
on Kea-tsze, in the morning, from his written specifications he
gave their several charges to the people of Yin, and to the chiefs of
the States from the Hou, Teen and Nan tenures. When the people
of Yin had thus received their orders, they arose with vigor to do
their work” [35]. Zhou Gong appointed the emperors of Hou, Teen,
and Nan as the Dukes with the same positions. Some Yin people
were appointed as presbyters wearing the formal clothes of Shang
Dynasty. In the “Wen Wang” of The Book of Poetry, it says that “the
officers of Yin, admirable and alert, Assist at the libations in (our)
capital;--They assist at the libations, Always wearing the hatchets
on their lower garment and their peculiar cap. O ye royal ministers
of the emperor, ever think of your ancestor!” (1991:430). Yin
people were selected as the presbyters wearing the formal clothes
of Shang Dynasty, which shows that Zhou Dynasty respects the
customs of Shang Dynasty’s nobility [42].
Zhou Dynasty still used some rites of Shang Dynasty. In the
chapter “The Announcement about the City of Luo”, it said that
“the emperor’s guests, on occasion of the killing of the victims
and offering the sacrifice, all made their appearance” [35]. Wang
Guowei explained that “杀” means killing the animals and “禋”
means offering the sacrifice. In the Rites of Zhou Dynasty, it offers
the sacrifice to Hao Tian Emperor, Sun, Moon, Sizhong, Siming,
Fengshi and Yushi. They burn wood to cause smoke that goes up.
They also use this to offers the sacrifice to ghost. In Wu Cheng, it
says that it happens in temples, which shows that in the early of
Zhou Dynasty, the Shang Dynasty’s rite of offering the sacrifice are
still used.
esides, in the early, Zhou Dynasty used the calendar
of Shang
Dynasty. In the chapter “The Announcement of Kangshu”, Zhou
Gong told Kang Shu that “in examining the evidence in criminal
cases, reflect upon it for five or six days, yea for ten days or three
months. You may then boldly carry your decision into effect in such
cases” [35]. The system of Ten days belonged to Shang Dynasty.
They divided a month into three Ten days, and at the beginning
of the week, a month was divided into four part. This essay was
used by Zhou Gong to tell Kang Shu to follow and use the system
of Shang Dynasty. Zhou Gong used the calendar system of Shang Dynasty.
Calendar played an important role in ancient politic and economy.
So, we can see that when Zhou Gong ruled the country, he
valued the “following the tradition” and achieved great results.
Relation between administration measures of Zhou
Gong and “adaptation” of Huang School
Huang School values the “adaptation”. “Adaptation” is one of
the cores of Huang School and political theory of Four Classics. In
the “On Principle of Six Schools”, Sima Tan has emphasized the
adaptation of times is the elementary step for an emperor to tackle
the national affairs, and pointed out that Huang Thought used the
adaptation of times. Adaptation means the changes in accordance
with the changes of things, so adaptation also values time. Four
Classics values adaptation and puts forward the adaptation of
Heaven, earth and people after seeing the achievement of Zhou
Gong’s adaptation administration. They will be talked about next.
The chapter “Cheng” puts forward the thought of following
Heaven and says that “a sage is never the first one to act; nor is he
obstinate. He does not make decisions before the opportunities
are at hand. He does not acquire things (for his own purpose);
(on the other hand,) he does not refuse good fortune. Accordingly,
he follows the principles of Heaven. If one loses the support of
Heaven, he will die. If one deceives his lord, he will likewise suffer
death. If one does not treat his superior with respect, he will be in
danger” [10]. A sage doesn’t act first or be obstinate, but waits for
the right time and chance to act so that he will not lose the fortune.
The wise emperor should follow the natural law, or his rule will
be in danger. So, it is important for the emperor to value natural
law and take the timing. The chapter “Cheng” also says that “if (a
naturally suitable) opportunity to achieve something is not yet at
hand, one should not be eager to do it prematurely. (So also) if a
proper time is not yet at hand, one should not enjoy the honor (of
high position and great wealth)” (1998:189). It means that plants
cannot grow against the natural law to bloom, which emphasizes
the importance of timing. Its meaning is expanded. The wise
emperor should seize the timing in time instead of early or late, so
when the time is right, everything can be successful, or it will fail.
The chapter “Guan” says that “The ruler of people should restrain
himself from the three pleasures, he ought not to create disorder
in people’s affairs, nor should he go against the timing of Heaven.
In so doing, the five grains will abundantly bear fruit, people
(will) multiply, the ruler above and the subjects below will be in
great harmony and both will satisfy their ambitions. Heaven will
complete (these) in accordance with (their natural tendencies)”
(1998:150). The wise emperor should arrange proper time
for agriculture and military, and military should be avoided in
the planting seasons. In this way can agriculture be developed,
emperor and his subjects be harmonious, people live affluently,
and Heaven bless them.
The chapter “The Four Principles” points out “timeliness
of Heaven”. It says that “according to the timeliness of Heaven,
launching a punitive expedition against (countries) that are
suffering destruction ordained by Heaven is called wu. If the
military sword (of control) is followed by wen, then success
will be achieved. He who utilizes two measures of wen and one
measure of wu will become a king” (1998:126). It emphasizes
that the wise emperor should comply with the law of Heaven
and he can overthrow the country that is bound to destruction.
After the success with force, the wise emperor should pacify
his people so that he can rule all the lands. So, we can see the
importance of timing in the military. The chapter “The Function
of an Army” also values the importance of timing. It says that “the
reason the sage succeeds is because he (knows how to) seize the
opportunity in time and make use of it. (If one can) follow up the
timely (opportunity) and seize…one will surely succeed. The sage
never rescinds punishment when it is due, nor does he break
contracts. Instead, he abides by the proper timing of Heaven and
makes decisions accordingly. When a decision should be made,
and yet not fails to make it, then one will suffer disasters caused
by himself” (1998:166). As long as the wise emperor is good at
taking advantage of timing and following the timing and chances,
he will be successful. Otherwise, he will suffer disaster.
In terms of adapting earth and people, the chapter
“Aphorisms” says that “according to what the earth provides,
one must replenish one’s (military) supplies, and, relying on (the
support of) people, one must recruit a new army. If one does
not follow (the natural course of events), he will not attain good
fortune” (1998:188). Besides following the natural law, emperors
need to act in accordance with the earth and people to succeed.
Otherwise, if emperors crave for greatness and success and fight
against natural law with his people, his country will be in danger.
The chapter “The Function of an Army” says that “in the midst
of confusion and disturbance, they will exploit the strength of
people to rebel against the ultimate of Heaven. If they still achieve
something by doing so, their country will be in jeopardy, their
state will be in chaos and actually nothing will be achieved. Even
if an achievement is celebrated, it cannot be enjoyed (because the
name falls short of the reality and the country will suffer turmoil).
This is the Tao of Heaven” (1998:167).
It is obvious that Four Classics believes that wise monarchs
should apply adaptation to politic, military, and agriculture, and
can have a good result. Adaptation is one of core concepts of
politic of Huang School. Chen Ligui [12] says that the seeming
negative Huang and Lao Thoughts contain tenacity to achieve the
positive results, and the key is adaptation.
That Zhou Gong’s administration measures emphases
adaptation has great influence on the adaptation of Huang School.
His administration measures are in politic, including founding
of a nation, requiring dukes to study and follow Yin emperor’s
administration method, keep and respect customs, religion and
organization of Yin clan. It is the same as Huang School, which
believe that monarchs arrange staff and they should follow the
rules and their duty [16]. Of course, Zhou Gong’s adaptation
is mainly used on the administration measures, and his other
measures are not following adaptation. The adaptation of Huang
School has broad meaning, and is expanded and improved by
Zhou Gong’s adaptation. It also includes requiring monarchs
to follow Yin and Yang and respect the nature laws, and putting
the society and politic into the category of adaptation. Huang
Thoughts emphases that theoretical foundation of adaptation is
emptiness and it is supported by Taoism. Zhou Gong emphases
“illustrate virtue and be careful in the use of punishments”. The
virtue he talks about is closely related to the Heaven and God will,
but the God will is different from the Tao of Huang School. God
will is from God, while Tao means nature law. Huang School has
a Tao theory including the theory of universal formation, and it
talks about the political theory based on that universal formation
theory. This is what Zhou Gong doesn’t have.
Confucius said, “The Dynasty has followed the regulations of
Yin; wherein it took from or added to them may be known.” From
the development of the ritual culture of Shang and Zhou Dynasty,
Confucius pointed out that ritual culture in Zhou Dynasty has
inherited and selected from the ritual culture in Shang Dynasty
[43]. In fact, from Zhou Gong’s administration measures, we can
see his “adaptation” method [44]. The reason he uses “adaptation”
method is because that Zhou Dynasty is just founded, and its
power is not strong. Zhou Dynasty couldn’t rule Yin people by
force. Zhou Gong had a good understanding of the history of
Xia and Shang Dynasty. He learnt from their experience and
emphases that the government should rule its people with virtue,
and it is destiny that Zhou Dynasty replaces the Shang Dynasty
because of its emperor’s virtue. Zhou Gong won people over in
his administration measure, unites with neighboring countries,
reduced rebellion and inherited critically the culture of Shang
Dynasty. Zhou Gong put forward the thought of “illustrate virtue
and be careful in the use of punishments” and implemented
measures to rule Yin people to achieve great effects. His thoughts
and methods have great influence on the birth of Huang School in
the Warring States Period. Huang School prevailed in the Warring
States of Period, and has the ideas of Taoism like valuing natural
law and emphasizing Yin and Yang. These thoughts did not exist
in Zhou Gong’s period. During its development, Huang School
learned from others’ strong points. As an important figure, Zhou
Gong’s thoughts and politic should be valued and absorbed by
Huang School. The relation between them is obvious.
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