Impact of Training on Nurses Performance and Productivity at Neonatal Intensive Care Unit (NICU)- Juniper Publishers

 

Nursing & Health Care - Juniper Publishers

Abstract

Introduction:Neonatal Nursing is Sub-Specialty of Nursing that works with Newborns born with variety of problems. It generally encompasses care for those neonates who experiences problems shortly after the first initial hours of birth till 28 days of life. So, it is essentially important for caregivers to undergo training that not only enhance knowledge but bring change in behavior by holding accountability to care neonates and to meet general to specific needs.

Objective and Purpose:Objective of the study was to assess the impact of training on Nurses Knowledge and Skills working at Neonatal Intensive Care Unit.

Methodology:An Experimental Study was made and Basic Neonatology Course in collaboration with Department of Pediatrics, Nursing Education Services and Research Development and Skill Center of Liaquat National Hospital. The Program was initiated to train nurses and doctors dealing with neonates. Course evaluation was based on Pre and Post Test on ICU infection module, Mid-Quiz and Final Quiz based on different Sections. For skills development clinical Simulators were used at Skills Development Centre (RSDC) and rotations were done Neonatal Intensive care (NICU), Pleads OPD and Well Baby Centre were selected. Paired T-Test and ANOVAs was applied.

Results: Total 25 participants were enrolled. We found significant differences in mean scores 26.82±6.16 and 31.9±10.45 of mid quiz and final quiz respectively (p=0.005).

Conclusions:Study showed the impact of training on all participation and validated the significance of continuous nursing education and contributed to make nurses valuable and safe by enduring high quality care to neonates and helped nurses to have sound proficiency at NI

Introduction

The Care of Newborn and premature babies have undergone major development in recent years. Premature holds high rate of morbidity than full term babies. Nurses working with this specialty need to be clinically sound to provide quality care to sick neonates with general to specific medicine and surgical needs. Newborns are born with variety of problems and first 28 days of life are essential for them to survive. An article by Haydeh Heidari [1] was one of the sources of inspiration with Title “Stress management among parents of Neonates hospitalized in NICU”. Where authors had talked on the bonding of neonates to their parents as there is interruption and delays in paternal and neonate bonding and attachments. From same it was articulated that research on maternal - infant bonding has revealed that contact with infants is fundamentally important for the development of maternal self-confidence, security, sentimental emotional stability and preparation for learning about infant’s growth and development. Maintaining calm among parents of sick neonate is challenging for health professionals working in NICU. This research had highlighted the most significant aspect of care where parents collectively shared that supportive staffs had a positive effect on their ability to maintain calm. “We feel calm when we see how nurses are working hardly and it gives us hope that their hard work and God’s will are going to help our baby get better”. Although the impact of developmental care on premature infants has been investigated at length, often the issue of professional development and training related to this type of care has not been examined Milette [2].

The daily Rounds at NICU and need expressed by nurses we planned a training program especially for Neonatal Nurses. Many nurses expressed when they undergo professional qualification diploma or degree program, they are trained in general nursing aspects and when transition phase is encountered, and Units are assigned to enter in world of many sub-specialty which College of Nursing presently don’t have in their curriculum Sheri Price [3] wrote in one of the Article Administrative Sciences: The Importance of Continuous Professional Development to Career Satisfaction…. Nurses throughout their Career Span” that data collection showed Nurses wrote “We have a great general education that gives great head Start, but Now I’m Looking for Education. I’m looking for more specialized training and I’m Finding it’s really hard to find”. Based on the fact Neonate Post Basic Course Training was to see its impact on performance and productivity of Nurses and Midwifes working in NICU.

Purpose

The aim of the study was to educate nurses to gain the necessary knowledge and skills to be able to provide specialized care to neonates. The impact of training was seen in cardiorespiratory support, care of neonate going under surgical procedure and disease processes and work as team in promotion of recovery for sick neonate from serious illness and meet patient satisfaction standards.

Study Design, Material and Method

An Experimental Study was made, and Basic Neonatology Course conducted in collaboration with Department of Peads and Nursing Education Services along with Research Development and Skill Center of Liaquat National Hospital. It was combining effort taken to Train Nurses and doctors dealing with Neonates. Pre and Post Test on ICU infection module was taken followed with Mid-Quiz based on different Sections (Section A: MCQs, Section B: Case Study, fill in the blanks, true and false, Section C: was of small essay questions and Section D: Bonus question). Final Quiz was subjective Based with Short essay Questions, while for Clinical Simulators at RSDC were used, NICU, Peads OPD and Well Baby. Paired T-Test and ANOVAs was applied.

Training was done over period of 9 days, total of 45 hours. Total Theory Hours were of 32.5 and clinical hours 12.5 hours. There were 25 Participants. Clinical Location was as Research and Skills Center, Well Baby Nursery, NICU and Pediatric OPD at Liaquat National Hospital. For the first time it happened that Team of Pediatric Faculties and Surgeons from Medicine and Surgery, Residents from Medicine and Surgery, Nursing Managers departmental and Nursing Education Services, Research and Skills development Center Team, Infection Control and Head Nurses joined hands and came forward to train nurses. Altogether there were (28 Trainers). This was the set example of team approach which in actual reflected on purpose of the training. The nurses and independent raters found scenario-based simulation training more effective than traditional communication course. Introduction of simulation-based training to in-service nursing education could enhance nurses’ communication performance in clinical practice HSU LL [4].

Participants were from different Hospitals Liaquat National Hospital and Medical College (LNHMC), Hamdard University and Hospital (HUH) and Memon Medical Institute and Hospital (MMIH) - As Shown in Figure 1. Unit Based participation was seen where neonates are been cared; Labour Room, Neonatal high dependency Unit, Neonate intensive care unit, Pediatric (Combine Specialty of Medicine and surgical), Peads Intensive Care Unit and High Dependency Unit. Inclusion Criteria was Inclusion Criteria: Nurses and Doctors working in NICU and those dealing mainly neonates and Exclusion Criteria: Nurses and Doctors not working in NICU and neither deal patient’s category (neonates) - Figure 2.

Learning is one of the necessary conditions to transfer what was taught to a daily working practice and it is processed as soon as the person appropriates a certain knowledge as articulate by Mira VL [5] Interactive session through Presentations, were made by team of trainers on different topics which includes neonatal medicine, neonatal surgery, neonatal infectious disease and other general to specific are of newborns. Evaluation was done by conducting Mid Quiz to assess knowledge of disease process along with Nursing Care and Responsibilities. Mid Quiz consists of MCQs, Case Study, Fill in the blanks and true and false. This was significant markup that benefitted us not only to understand Knowledge level of the nurses but also their ability to comprehend with variety of questions style. Participants who had put a word with exact Responses in Case Scenario rated full as per section marks. Interestingly, responses in Quiz were checked by team and it was also found that People were comfortable more on responding Short essay questions. So, one of the learning limitations was noted and planned accordingly in promoting and enhancing concept building and critical thinking. Group Presentation was made to develop good group dynamics. Reflective Writings were part of every day. Cases were discussed, and thought-provoking question were given, and queries related were discussed and cleared. Final Quiz was conducted based on Short essay questions. Recommendations and conclusions were done with participants and trainers on one platform.

Statistical Analysis

Statistical Package for the Social Sciences Software (SPSS, version 21) was used for analysis. Quantitative variables such as scores of midterm, final term, pretest and posttest were presented in terms of Mean ± SD. Qualitative variables as gender, institutes, hospital units and designation were presented in terms of frequency and percentages. Student t-test and ANOVA was applied for finding mean differences between quantitative variables. P-value ≤ 0.05 was considered as significant.

Results

In our study, 25 participants were enrolled. 11(44%) were males and 14(56%) were females. They all were from different institutes in which 19(76%) from LNH, 4(16%) from HUH, 2(8%) from MMH. Out of all, 4(16%) from labor room, 1(4%) from neonatal HDU, 4(16%) from NICU, 6(24%) from paeds, 1(4%) from paeds medicine, 3(12%) from paeds surgery, 4(16%) from PICU, well baby nursery 2(8%). According to designation, only 1(4%) was senior resident, 2(8%) were resident, 15(60%) were RN, 4(16%) were RM and 3(12%) were RN/RM. We found significant differences in mean scores 26.82±6.16 and 31.9±10.45 of midterm and final term respectively (p=0.005). The mean score of pretests based on MCQ’s criteria was 10.76±2.11 and mean score of posttests based on subjective question was 12.10±1.8, which shows the significant differences in mean scores of pre and posttest criteria (p=0.002). It also indicates that the mean score of posttest increases as compared to pretest (Figures 1 & 2).

The mean score of male and female in midterm was reported as 26.45±5.59 and 27.10±6.77 which shows insignificant differences between mean scores of both gender (p=0.799). In final term, the mean score was reported as 33.72±8.12 in males and 30.46±12.14 in females. Another finding of the study narrated that female had higher score while assessing training program while male had higher varied score while assessing organizational effectiveness. Zulfiqar Ali [6] in pre-test, the mean score was reported as 10.90±2.02 in males and 10.50±1.99 in females. In post-test, the mean score was reported as 12.25±2.43 in males and 12±1.41 in females. We found insignificant differences in mean scores of final terms (p=0.456), pre-test (p=0.617) and posttest (p=0.768) with respect to gender. The detailed frequency distribution according to gender is presented in Table 1. According to different institute participants, the differences in mean scores obtained from different institutes participants were also found significant in midterm (p=0.025) and final term (p=0.031). There is no significant difference was found in mean scores of pretests (p=0.888) and posttest (p=0.371). The detailed frequency distribution of different institute participants is presented in Table 2.

ANOVA test is applied

*Significant at <0.05

**Insignificant at >0.05

Study not only showed substantial and positive impact of training on nurses. With p=0.005 and p=0.002 that validates scope of continuous nursing education. Training motivated Nurses endure high quality care to neonates and to have sound proficiency at NICU. Analyzing the Results of Mid Quiz Sectional Review was taken below mean score in Mid Quiz. Mean Score seen high in Section C based on small essay questions. So final was prepared on analysis made on participants understanding to comprehend thing well in short essay questions since it was first time such training was done so at all levels comforts were taken in account for better understanding of NICU concepts

Discussion

Pediatric and Neonatology (2015) [7] by Rocio. M. Pena had coherent discussion under critique “impact of a developmental care training course on knowledge …. In neonatal Unit” that nurses working in NICU received no training in developmental care. Given continuous advances and changes in Medical Era has caused health professionals to enroll in Continuous education to acquire and maintain skills. A lucid discussion was made in terms of training NICU nurses that after long time field of Neonatology realized to take and initiate training among such group of nurses who in actual working for population who cannot speak for themselves. Training based on six major categories that completed circle of neonatal care; Peads Surgery, Peads Medicine, Peads Infectious Disease, Neurological, Bio-Ethics and Basic neonatal Care. A systematic approach to care was given by group of trainers that helped nurses to understand disease process and to monitor and be acquainted with danger signs in neonates. It focused on ethical decision making, care of dying neonates, bereavement, and cultural communication Murakami [8].

Concept of early warning signs was especially been put in course as real and most underlying threatening emergencies are detected through this. This section as covered mainly through case studies that promoted critical thinking of Nurses. It gave acknowledgement to them to figure out and execute type of intercession demanded by condition or an event encountered by neonates. The ideal time frame for frequency of resuscitation skills training has yet to be determined. Results obtained from this performance improvement project using hands-on practice sessions [9]. Moreover, team approach is expected in all decisions made for the patients in and during CPR, Carrying out invasive procedure like intubation and administration of surfactant therapy, Blood Exchange Transfusion and its monitoring during Cycles of In-and Out, Peritoneal Dialysis etc. Training gave an opportunity to retain knowledge of nurses and to be more efficient in using and implementing care plans that resulted in positive outcomes.

Peads Surgery had the most flexible approach in making participants to learn about special surgical series. Case presentation was made on diseases like NEC; Hirsch sprung Disease, bowel obstructions or atresia, TEF, Congenital Diaphragmatic hernia. There were five groups each group headed by a surgery resident as facilitator. Peads Surgeon foster discussion on cases those significantly were useful. Apart from this at end of each case presented discharge teaching and care instructions for parents in most easy and simple language was demonstrated by peads surgery residents. There is a strong gap between theory and practice in nursing field and the nurses pay more attention to scientific and skill aspects than science and art of nursing. During the last two decades, almost all countries have been confronted with increasing demands for health services Borzadady Farahani [10]. Data collection was made by taking Pre and Post Test of Infection Control Module, Mid and Final Quiz based on Assessing Knowledge about Disease Process and Nursing Responsibilities. Reflective writings were found to be the most significant contrivance to evaluate over all courses. It gives us prospect to learn about participants need and expectations as it received after a one complete session cycle. Few Examples of reflective writing were as follows:

“We felt fortunate to be part of training and team together thought to train us, this was the moment awaited to retain my knowledge”. (Mid Age Nurses of NICU). “Handling Neonates had always been risky and difficult mainly for activities like positioning them with tubes and invasive lines, bathing and weighing them daily, measuring length, FOC & Plotting it to growth graph, abdominal girth measuring, feeding babies through NG/OG, Cup and Spoon, Routine Care: Eye Care, Skin Care, mouth Care, Perineal Care, invasive line care. We were doing because we were taught but this training gave rational to all are actions and now we are aware to bring change in practices to promote more of the neonate safety. (Nurse Midwife - NICU) “It was very hard to engulf these big concepts of tiny world (neonates). We never thought Neonatology basics will be a giant step to learn as academics do not have these in their curricula”. (Newly Hired Novice Nurse).

Revista Latino-Americana de Erfermagem [11] affirmed that another factor associated with the appropriateness of continuous education is the role of management. The reality of academic training for nursing professionals has changed radically in recent decades in terms of maintaining the rhythm of current clinical practice. The study has created a platform for Senior Management, faculties, nursing leaders to plan such comprehensive training programs and to carry on learning wheel to empower and retain nurses. This act ultimately will improve patient safety and satisfaction level. Clinical decision participation is promoted to improve recovery level. Limitation of study was, only knowledge was assessed in summative while clinical evaluation was not assessed collectively. In addition, it was small scale study. Despite for it been small scale to its limitation it showed participants eagerness, interest and thirst to learn and grow in this specialty. It postulated to influence nurses to bring change in behavior and attitude while caring for neonate with dissimilar diseases processes. Research on developmental care (2005) by Isabelle, Lucie and Marie Confirm that small scale is ambitious and help to convince nurses, planners, decision makers for the potentials of training offers for health and development of premature infants.

Conclusion

Frequent sittings were done in different phases of training with trainers: Pre-Phase, Mid-Phase and Post-Phase helped us to modified things. Debriefing was done for all process of trainings: Skills Sign Off, Quizzes and Presentations. We hope that upon completion of training there would be a significant change in nursing practices an. It was efforts of team which resulted in constructive outcomes. Adequate training and orientation when starting their career, and continuing education throughout their career, were of significant importance to student nurses. Continuing education was seen as a career-long component of a nursing career. Student nurses believed that their formal education only provided them with a starting point, with an understanding that additional training, learning and education would take place throughout their career Price S [12]. Study showed the impact of training on all participation and validated the significance of continuous nursing education and contributed to make nurses valuable and safe by enduring high quality care to neonates and helped nurses to have sound proficiency at NICU. A study also indicated that trained healthcare working force is crucial in tertiary care hospitals of Pakistan [6].

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Parking Demand for Elementary & Secondary Schools in Jordan- Juniper Publishers

 

Civil Engineering- Juniper Publishers

Abstract

This study aimed at investigating parking demand at elementary and secondary schools in Irbid city; the second largest city in Jordan, to identify the main influencing factors, and develop models to predict future demand based on local conditions. The major considered factors included school area, number of students, number of teachers, number of classrooms, gender of students, education level (elementary, secondary), and school ownership (public, private). A total of 118 different types of schools were surveyed from different areas in Irbid City. The required field data were collected on regular weekdays by field surveys and manual counting for the total number of parked vehicles and the variation during the schools working hours, while schools descriptive information’s were obtained from the directorate of education in Irbid city. Peak demand models for different types of schools were developed using multiple linear regression analysis by SPSS software. The results of the study showed that the main affecting factors on school parking demand include the total number of students, classrooms, and teachers. However, more focus was given to the number of students due to collinearity among these main independent variables and to be consistent with the international practice.

Keywords: Parking demand, Elementary school, Secondary school, Irbid, Jordan

Term Campus

Concerns are raised about traffic congestion and parking problems in Jordan as one of the developing countries with high population growth, immigration from neighbouring countries, increasing vehicle ownership and weak public transportation system, that require expansion of road networks and affect traffic operations and parking demand (both on street and off-street). Parking is an important element in the transportation system, since each driver needs to park somewhere before and after each trip. Parking has a significant effect on traffic problems like traffic congestion, traffic safety and environment. It must be effectively organized whether at on- or off-street to meet the land uses parking demand, reduce traffic problems and keep the desired levels of service for the street network.

Parking studies are main part of transportation studies used to assess the impact of new proposed developments. Findings and results represent the input needed to understand the existing parking conditions and requirements, to guide and enhance parking planning, management, and implementation of related projects. Parking studies may also help to set possible improvements required for handling existing traffic conditions and accommodating future changes to create balance between parking supply and demand especially in cities where the cost of land is expensive. It is necessary to estimate parking demand requirements at existing and proposed developments to assess parking adequacy and their impact on the transportation network. Parking demand models are necessary tools to guide engineers, planners, and decision makers in transportation planning and parking management.

It is not accurate to use international parking demand models in Jordan to estimate or predict the required parking demand without validation for local conditions since there are different socioeconomic and traffic characteristics between different countries, especially between developed and undeveloped ones. So it is essential to develop parking demand models based on local traffic and socioeconomic conditions in order to provide more accurate estimates. This study aims at investigating the required parking demand at elementary and secondary schools in Irbid city, identify affecting factors, and develop models to predict future parking demand as a function of the main influencing factors such as the school area, number of class rooms, number of students, number of teachers, gender of students, school ownership (public, private), etc. Parking demand models are used to provide prediction for future parking demand at developments for planning and management and creating balance between demand and supply.

Literature Review

The Institute of Transportation Engineers [1] has defined parking generation as “an educational tool for planners, transportation professionals, zoning boards and others who are interested in estimating parking demand of proposed development”. It has also defined parking supply as “the total number of parking spaces that are built or available at the study site, regardless of whether or not are utilized” and parking demand as “the total number of parking spaces required at a given site during the peak period”. It has been found by different international studies that the total number of students is the main variable that is positively related and significantly affect the number of parking spaces needed at school’s land use. Other variables that may affect schools parking demand include number of teachers, number of classrooms and school area. ITE [1] predicts parking demand rates for different types of schools (elementary, middle, high, private, and schools for blind) at different location types based on the number of students and presents linear relationships between school peak parking demand and the number of students.

Dubai Municipality [2] has a parking generation manual which estimates the required parking rates for different school levels based on the number of students. Different factors are presented based on school level (kindergarten, elementary and intermediate, and secondary), ownership (private, government), period (school morning peak, school afternoon peak, traffic peak hour), and gender (male, female). Riyadh Municipality [3] has a Parking Generation Manual which estimates parking rates for elementary governmental schools in Riyadh city based on the total area of the school, number of classes, number of students, and number of employees. Different studies were conducted in Jordan at different land uses to investigate parking demand and develop models for parking demand prediction based on local conditions. Al-Masaeid et al. [4] have conducted a study in Jordan to estimate parking generation rates at different land uses including apartment buildings, restaurants, shopping centers, office buildings, hospitals, and hotels and found lower parking demand rates as compared with developing countries. Ghuzlan et al. [5] have investigated the parking demand for multistory apartment buildings in Jordan, and identified their significant influencing factors which included building age (years), number of floors, apartment gross floor area (m²), average apartment income (JD), average apartment car ownership, and location of the building.

A study at the University of Washington [6] has conducted parking field surveys at a high school located at Seattle metropolitan area and collected data about location, site area, building area, time of regular classes, total number of students, teachers, and administrators and developed models for parking rate as a function of the number of students. Wong et al. [7] conducted a parking demand study in Hong Kong at different land uses to investigate parking demand for both private cars and goods vehicles. Linear parking demand models were developed for different land uses including schools. A study at the Arizona state university [8] has surveyed parking demand at three elementary schools in Maricopa county region in Arizona with data on the number of students, number of employees, and school size. Parking demand rate was calculated as a function of the number of students, resulting in a rate of 25 vehicle/student as compared to 14 vehicle/student in the national ITE parking generation manual.

Data Collecion and Reduction

The study data were collected from Irbid city which is the second largest city in Jordan after the capital (Amman), with a population of 929,224 [9]. The city is in the northern part of Jordan with most of its total area classified as residential. The directorate of education in Irbid was contacted to obtain the available information about schools including school area, education type, education level, students’ gender, number of students, number of classrooms, and number of teachers. Field surveys and manual counting was performed for collecting parking data during schoolworking hours. The study included 118 elementary and secondary schools from Irbid city to investigate their parking demand and the main influeing factos [10]. different types of schools were considered and surveyed in the study including public and private schools for male, female, and mixed students, in elementary and secondary levels. (Table 1) presents a list of abbreviations for the main dependent and independent variables as they are used in this study.

Parking demand data were collected through field surveys to obtain accurate information about existing parking supply and the peak number of parked vehicles at each school site with parking demand variation along the schoolworking hours. Vehicle counts at schools were conducted as follows:

a. The total number of parked vehicles were continuously counted by visual observation and recorded manually on a regular weekday.

b. Vehicles that were considered in the schools parking demand surveys included personal automobiles for teachers and administrative staff, school buses, commercial vehicles for school needs, and vehicles for school visitors such as students’ parents and education supervisors, and for special related activities.

c. To get the accurate data for real peak demand, all access points (gates) to the schools were considered in this study.

d. Some teachers, and administrative staff preferred to park a little far from the schools buildings or at adjacent streets to avoid congestion in front of the schools gates and these vehicles were also considered.

e. During field surveys, the counting was only for the parked vehicles for school purposes and not for any other developments activities.

Some descriptive independent variables were coded as (0, 1) or (0, 1, 2) for regression analysis and model development as shown in (Table 2). (Table 3) shows a sample of the collected data that were surveyed which includes descriptive information and peak parking demand for secondary private schools (all are mixed and morning schools). Similar data were collected for all school types.

Analysis and Modeling

Correlation matrices were developed for each school type to investigate correlation between different variables and parking demand before model development. (Table 4) presents a sample correlation matrix for male elementary public schools.

It can be seen from the above table, that parking demand is highly correlated with the number of students, number of classrooms, and number of teachers which are also highly correlated with each other’s. The same trend was also noticed for other types of schools. The statistical analysis linear regression method was performed on the collected data using the statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) software in order to develop models for predicting school peak parking demand as a function of its influencing variables. The highest number of parked vehicles during observation period was the value considered in regression analysis and model development. (Table 5) through 11 present the developed models for parking rate as functions of the main affecting variables. All equations and parameters are significant at 95% confidence level, where: Since NT, NC, and NS have high collinearity with each other and to be consistent with the international practice, it has been decided to focus on the total number of students (NS) in the developed parking demand models. (Tables 6-11) (Table 12) presents a summary of the developed models for the school peak parking demand as a function of the number of students for different school types. (Figure 1) shows the relationship between parking demand and the number of students at all school types combined. The model R2 is weak (0.40), so it is not recommended to use a combined model and it is preferred to use separate models (rates) for different school types.

Comparison with Other Models

(Figure 2) shows an example of a comparison for parking demand based on the observed data and developed models with the corresponding predicted values from ITE and Dubai manuals for male elementary public schools. As can be seen from the above figure, the developed rates provide closer estimates for parking demand while international models provide high overestimates as compared to the field observations.

Conclusion & Recommendations

Empirical models were developed for predicting peak parking demand at each type of school as a function of the main influencing variables. Key conclusions are summarized as follows:

I. Depending on data collection and analysis it was found that the main affecting factors on school parking demand include the total number of students, classrooms, and teachers. However, more focus was given to the number of students due to high collinearity between the three factors and to be consistent with the international practice.

II. The relationships between the dependent variable (peak school parking demand) and the affecting factors have liner forms.

III. A weak relationship was found between average peak parked vehicles and the total number of students for all school types combined, so it is not recommended to use a combined model and it is preferred to use separate models/rates for different school types.

IV. The developed school parking demand rates provide closer estimates than commonly used international models as compared to field observations.

Based on the data collection, analysis, and model developments in this research, it is recommended to:

1. Conduct similar studies at different land uses to establish a comprehensive parking demand manual based on local conditions instead of using foreign manuals with different socioeconomic and traffic characteristics.

2. Utilize the results of this study in planning, design, construction, and study of school parking in Jordan.

3. Validate the study results for other cities in the country.

Conduct similar studies every few years to find out the effects of changes over time in socioeconomic characteristics, population, vehicle ownership, to propose possible updates if required.

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Anthropology, Participatory Research and Development Cooperation: A Necessary Dialogue- Juniper Publishers

 

Archaeology & Anthropology- Juniper Publishers

Abstract

Le domande sul “perché e per chi” if it generates conoscenza [1] sono da tempo a chiave per anthropological discipline. At the present time, it is always the case that it is important for the dissemination of the risultati, poiché il sapere prodotto in such a way that it can be used positively in the realta study. This line of thought is directed towards the end of the rifle and the gli obiettivi of the progetti of cooperation to the sviluppo, in particolare i micro-progetti. The text presents some concrete cases in which, as an anthropologist, I directed cooperation projects and community formation processes in indigenous areas of Mexico. These experiences reveal the need for integrating anthropological research and cooperation activities, in which the researcher’s work has facilitated the identification of key issues for the intervention and the relationship with the community that hosted it. Secondly, the necessary complementarity of knowledge for the integral interpretation of reality and the consequent design of cooperation projects became evident. Thirdly, the enhancement of local organizational structures guarantees the strength and durability of the results obtained through cooperation activities.

Keywords: Participatory research; Development cooperation; Anthropology; Mexico

Introduction

“We do not ask for your help, rather we want you to come and share our cause and our struggle.” This is what Juan told me, representing a Zapatista indigenous village in Chiapas, in southern Mexico, during my first research trip for the realization of my thesis in Ethnology. An irrefutable ethical statement that should accompany every research or cooperation project, both too often marked by welfarist or ethnocentric legacies

At the age of twenty, I found a way to reach the south-east of Mexico by participating in a project of “cooperation from below” directed by a small Italian NGO: for a month, I found myself with other volunteers doing masonry work for the construction of a turbine that equipped the village with electricity. In the twenty years that followed, anthropological research turned into my life project, always intertwined with projects of cooperation and community formation in indigenous areas of Mexico. Juan’s words have turned into the ethical compass that, both in research and in cooperation, has always sought the joint construction of projects and results with the stakeholders. The experiences realized also reveal the need for the integration of anthropological research and cooperation activities, in which the researcher’s work facilitated the identification of key issues for the intervention and the relationship with the community that hosted it.

Discussion

Anthropology and cooperation: from coloniality to participation

First of all, I stress the obvious parallelism between anthropology, as a social science, and development cooperation, which have in common a colonial or neo-colonial root. The anthropological discipline developed, historically, with the declared objective of producing knowledge on the Others, indigenous and native populations, object of the colonial domination. Also, in Mexico, the exceptional development of the discipline since the thirties is part of the same process, expression of the nationalist policies of state strengthening, assimilation and control of cultural diversity, defined by González Casanova [2]as internal colonialism.

Secondly, “development cooperation” also bears the colonial mark defined by the controversial term “development”. The criticisms of the concept are manifold; among the many authors, I would like to mention here only [3-5] which from distinctperspectives have shown how development implies the action of transforming subjects and directing them to change towards an objective defined elsewhere: “progress”, often to the detriment of the way of life, the relationship with the environment and the cosmovision of the “subjects / objects” of development itself. The limits and potential of cooperation have long been highlighted by the current anthropology of development or anthropology of development [6-9].

Starting from the identification of the common colonial and neo-colonial brand, the reflections on the relevance and purpose of the research or of the cooperative intervention are also common; on the recipients and producers of the knowledge produced or shared, on the ways in which these are produced. Finally, the question concerning the “why and for whom” social sciences create knowledge, formulated by Robert Lynd since 1939, continues to be central to the anthropological discipline. The construction of knowledge, infrastructure or training are processes that have in common the objective of transforming existing reality, and as such require the active participation of both the local population as well as researchers and cooperators. If anthropology is understood as a political practice, and therefore with a relevant theoretical substrate, a complex ethnography and a political commitment, it can therefore have a real impact in cooperation policies and projects: it would be the passage from an anthropology of development to a postdevelopment anthropology [10].

With the intention of subverting the neocolonial heritage, research approaches have been developed since the 1960s that favor the participation of those who previously were considered only “objects of study” and, subsequently, objects of the intervention of public policies and processes of building ethnically hierarchical societies. It is in this age that, in different countries, the enhancement of “local” or “popular” knowledge is growing and the proposal of participatory action research (IAP) promoted by Fals-Borda in the Seventies is born. The centrality of research as a tool for the transformation of society also characterizes the approaches marked by the reflection on the intrinsic colonial brand or coloniality of power and knowledge [11], or those focused on methodological reflection, such as activist or militant anthropology [12]. With increasing frequency, research projects are developed in which the “subjects of study” actively participate, from the definition of the themes or co-licensing [13] to the dissemination of the results, since the knowledge produced in this way can be used for affect positively in the studied reality.

Participatory action research is at the same time a research methodology and a social transformation project, since it involves the active participation of the population, which goes from being an object to the subject of research aimed at social change [14]. The question of Lynd on why, for whom and how to do research is equally fitting if transposed to the theme of international cooperation. The emphasis on participation in all phases of social transformation is key in the decolonization process, both in anthropology and in cooperation. Both pass both for a democratization of projects and activities (research and development cooperation), which in order to acquire cognitive and social effectiveness and relevance must be forcibly shared and consensual with the subjects. The active participation of the collective subjects involved in the project is fundamental, from the identification of the problem, to its analysis (object of the participatory research) up to the elaboration of the intervention project, its planning and the realization of the activities (objective of the projects of cooperation). In this sense, there is a necessary relationship of continuity between anthropological research and participatory and bottom-up cooperation projects [9] a field of action studied and theorized by the current anthropology for development [15] or development anthropology [7].

Anthropology and cooperation: an experience from the field

The experience of one of the various cooperation projects in indigenous regions of Mexico in which I participated allows me to exemplify some further reflections. This is the Community Communication Project promoted by the Coordinadora Regional de Autoridades Comunitarias, in the Costa Chica and Montaña regions of the state of Guerrero. Between 2005 and 2014 I carried out research activities in the area, and in particular on the activities of the organization mentioned, which brings together different indigenous peoples. The relationship of trust built with the organization and with the inhabitants of the villages, thanks to a method of participatory research, meant that I was shared a need that had been identified for some time: the impulse to one’s own, direct means of communication to facilitate the exchange of information both within the region and externally [16].The collective discussion led to the definition of two main instruments: a network of community radios that spoke the indigenous languages of the region and gave space to local problems, and a web page that spread the activities of the Coordinadora Regional de Autoridades Comunitarias.

The first requested contribution was in the participated elaboration of the project, and subsequently in the funding research. Cooperation agencies outside the region did not intervene in this case, but in a collaborative way (through assemblies in which the region’s indigenous authorities participated, and then village by village) a shared project was drawn up, and then they looked for the sources of financing. In this case, considering the micro character of the project, we turned to funding sources that did not require a high level of formality in the project (The German Umverteilen foundation; the cooperation sector of the Italian Region Trentino-Alto Adige through the mediation of an Italian NGO). In this context, the voluntary cooperation of the villages concerned with materials for the construction of radio studios, labor or money was fundamental. My role was, after the identification of the need and the participation in the elaboration of the project, substantially that of mediator between the indigenous organization and the requests for funding, and the coordination of the activities that required the presence of subjects external to the region (training of young speakers and editors, installation of radios).

The role of the anthropologist can therefore provide different contributions to the world of cooperation. First of all, from the anthropological research work needs can emerge which are then channeled to the development of cooperation projects, favoring a real relevance of the projects. Secondly, anthropological knowledge, which consists of a profound knowledge of the cultures on which one acts, can provide a multiplicity of visions that guide cooperation and help it to define its interventions in a culturally appropriate way. According to Antonino Colajanni, an anthropologist who has worked on these issues for decades, the first thing to check for a future project is its “socio-cultural sustainability” that can be ascertained with a survey on local capacities to generate resources, with skills, knowledge, interests and vision of the future. The best idea is to ensure that the next intervention does not create dependence but stimulates local capacities [17]. An anthropologist does this by profession: he observes, questions, tries to understand, listens, feels, sees, understands the links between people and has a technical knowledge that allows him to collect this “forgotten dimension of development”, the cultural one

Complementarity of knowledge and enhancement of own knowledge

Collaborative anthropology, and truly such cooperation, have in common the enhancement of local skills and knowledge. In training activities on the subjects of popular communication, community journalism and radio communication aimed at the young operators and operators of indigenous radios installed in Guerrero, we have indeed invited external experts, but we have also and above all involved those subjects present in the territory (masters, lawyers, but also seniors, students and peasants) whose skills have been valued within the training activities. In this way the territorial rooting of the project is strengthened, and the knowledge that is conveyed is culturally appropriate; there is no need for a “translation” of the cooperation objectives because the project is acted by the subjects themselves.”Solo entre todos sabemos todo”, explained a wixárica indigenous essay. The phrase highlights the necessary complementarity of local, cultured, popular, traditional and innovative knowledge for the integral interpretation of reality and the consequent design of cooperation projects. We are in the sphere defined by Sousa Santos as “ecology of knowledge”, where “the credibility of a cognitive construction is measured by the type of intervention in the way it allows or prevents” [18].

Enhancement of local organizational structures

Following the discussion of the Community Communication Project in the assemblies inside each village, these collectively chose the people who would participate in the training activities (mostly young people) and consequently they would then be in charge of the community radio operation. In this way the project was legitimized and appropriated within the local society and culture. The leaders of each of the three radios were then elected in the Regional Assembly (attended by all the representatives of the villages in the region). In this way that of “radio manager” becomes a public office, recognized and included in the traditional indigenous organizational structure; this guaranteed the durability of the results, since the vigilance on the good technical and organizational functioning of the radios was immediately assumed by the local communities.

Conclusion

The experience I told is of micro-cooperation, and obviously the cooperation on a larger scale, which implies a higher technological specialization and greater economic investment, faces more complex problems. In any case, I believe that the emphasis on sharing, participation and the substantial democratization of cooperation, as well as the production of knowledge that should accompany it, must be key elements to be privileged in activities at every scale, micro and macro. The anthropological sensitivity, attentive to cultural nuances and to complex social transformations, is also characterized by the continuous movement on the micro and macro scales of knowledge, and in this, I believe, its fundamental contribution to the world of cooperation should be enhanced and strengthened.

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