Forensic Sciences & Criminal Investigation - Juniper Publishers
Abstract
From the viewpoint of Swedish vulnerable areas this
article focusing on the potential consequences of two methods of
policing (Zero-tolerance and boundary-relation) from the perspective of
factors connected with officers’ health, professional work performance,
and the effect on the resources of the local community such as work
against crime. The authors put forward different patterns of loss of
resources that result from officers stressful and traumatic experiences.
The article further discuss the effects on society connected to signs
of loss of resources in the areas of health, such as cynicism, and
performance. The two methods of policing play very different parts in
whether resources will be lost or gained when the officers approach the
local community. Reflecting the principles of Sir Robert Peel wherein
the good relations between the police and the public is emphasized as
the basis of effective policing.
Keywords: Occupations; Mutilation; Witnessing; Shootings; Dealing; Normalcy; Exposure
A Heightened Need for Resources of Officers
It has long been established that working as a police
officer is associated with stress and health problems Habersaat et al.
[1]. When compared to other occupations, a heightened level of risks
with regard to on duty actions resulting in ill-health or injuries has
been documented Mayhew [2]. These risks included also an elevated
frequency of threats. Consequently, Violanti [3] has compared US police
officers day to day work with warfare: “The police officer is expected
to be combat-ready at all times...[facing] a continual sense of danger
from an unknown enemy...While the Vietnam veteran was at war for a
minimum of nine months, police officers alternate between the violence
of the street (e.g., shootings, witnessing death and mutilation, dealing
with abused children) and the normalcy of civilian life on a daily
basis.”
The different contexts of potentially traumatic exposure
Regarding the Swedish Police force an increased
exposure for on duty risks documented by Mayhew [2] from the perspective
of 61 s.c. vulnerable areas having been defined. Out of these 29, were
named “specially vulnerable areas”. Both varieties of vulnerable
areas are together described in terms of low socioeconomical status,
high criminal activity, and high level of narcotic related crimes NOA,
2015, & 2016 [4]. From research findings, it has also been suggested
a dynamic or circular process where in these areas increased rates of
crime undermine both the informal as well as the formal local control.
Under more favorable circumstances, these local control conditions would
regulate or abate deviant behavior whereas the wearing out
instinctively of both varieties of control instances consequently allows
crime to advance Klinger [5].
Methods on offer
The different work methods pertaining to how the
police officers handle their tasks in the vulnerable areas are of
greatest importance. Two well-known and defined methods can be described
as representing two different rationales where one is more leaning
towards zero-tolerance and the other more towards a balance between
setting boundaries and building relations to the local community.
Similar to both methods is that working in these areas expose the police
officers to high frequencies of stressful events. This including
effects from the above two different work methods on the police officers
and thereby also on the community
is here in the center of attention of the authors.
The work method of zero-tolerance is a strategy based on
repeated activities targeting even minor crimes and focusing
on order-maintenance Bratton et al. [6], Greene [7]. Through
this method, the frequency of interactions between citizens and
police officers are aimed to be very high. Moreover, the interaction
between the two parts can be described as having a negative tone
where one part (police officers) is to take control over the other
part (citizens). This logically also implies increasing the likelihood
of traumatic encounters.
In the other work method setting boundaries (including
arrests and punishments), there is a balance between the building
of relations to the local community and singular citizens. The
stressful negative interactions between police officers and citizens
are mixed with positive interactions between the two parts. This
is a work method more in tune with Sir Robert Peel’s principles
where the relations between law enforcement and the public are
emphasized as the base of effective policing Peel [8].
Potential Health Effects from Specific Demands and Resources
When regarding those two work methods with the focus on
both possible health effects on police officers and its indirect
effects on society; stress is an important factor to examine. Stress
in general has been shown to generate negative effects both
physical and psychological Ohira et al. [9]. Being a police officer
is associated always with presenting one of the most stressful
occupations often resulting in physical as well as psychological
ill health Habersaat et al. [1], Maguen et al.[10], Berg et al.[11]
showed that both frequency and severity of job stress among
police officers was associated with anxiety symptoms and
burnout. Moreover, these authors found that the frequency, not
the severity, of stress factors was associated with cynicism.
Recurring trauma of police officers means a psychological
sensitization effect that was identified by Regehr et al. [12].
Sensitization was manifested as an ongoing (prolonged)
psychological response after stressful exposure. In turn, the
amelioration of the stress response was related to awareness of
access to social support if needed. Cynicism is, in itself, a long-recognized sign of burnout
Maslach [13]. Cynicism refers to being distrustful of others
sincerity or integrity and beliefs regarding others as motivated
purely by self-interest (Oxford dictionary, on line). The cynicism
that is referred to in this article is regarded in line with Maslach
[14] as a state rather than as a personal trait thereby connected to
attitudes, behavior, and cognition Dean, Brandes, & Dharwadkar
[15]. In general, cynicism is found to have negative impact on
interpersonal relations and work performance Leiter et al. [13].
Leiter and Maslach discussed the premise that even though there
are strong correlational links between the three subscales of the
Maslach Burn out Inventory (MBI) these patterns does not fully mirror the person centered reality of the match between on
one hand and the individual employee and the organizational
conditions on the other. They therefore employed a latent profile
design with large samples of participants and hypothesized
profiles of firstly a total of the three dimension (Overextended,
Disengaged/Cynisism and Ineffective) meaning the BurnOut (BO)
score profile and MBI, secondly the separate existence of the three
MBI dimensions and thirdly a healthy profile named Engagement.
Furthermore, the person-centered BO scores were
analogously examined together with also different dimensions
of the work organization. e.g. workload or resources. Concerning
the profile of disengagement or cynicism this showed to be the
closest to the total score profile of BO consequently also closer
than the separate Exhaustion score. Interestingly, the cynicism
profile was not distinguished by high work load. However,
cynicism occurred in a unique organizational context of low
scores concerning the three dimensions of resources doing the
job (reward, community, fairness, professional network etc), low
scores regarding social context at work (e.g. civility or incivility
from manager or co-worker) and satisfaction with work (e.g.
accomplishment or overall satisfaction with work). Leiter et al.
[13] suggested cynicism was a more central aspect of BO than
fatigue, but also, in itself, a fork where the work process seemed to
go wrong. Therefore, its “sources and outcomes“ (p 98) also need
to be better understood.
Repeated exposure is sensitizing exposure
Researchers such as Regehr et al. [12] or Chopco et al. [16]
examined the nature and consequences of repeated exposure
to potentially traumatic situations in the policing profession.
The findings of Regehr and colleagues (2007) concerning the
consequences of recurring exposure to stressful situations are
interesting while they are contra intuitive or challenging to notions
about a protective effect from being psychologically accustomed
to traumatic situations at work. Instead, when the researcher
examined police officer’s individual history of traumatic stress
exposure together with psychological and biological responses
to acute stress, they found a very different storyline. Regehr et
al. [12] used a police training video simulator and the simulator
recounted a domestic violence situation. The situation included
an injured (through harm) female victim, the ongoing presence of
the perpetrator and the need for safety precautions regarding the
officer herself or himself in the current situation.
From collected anamnestic data and from different
recordings
in conjunction with the simulated stressful situation the
researchers found an outcome of psychological sensitization
to stressful situations associated to the quantity of (repeated)
exposure to traumatic stress in police officers. This prolonged
psychological response to stress was not accompanied by a
prolonged physiological response (concerning heart rate or
cortisol measures). Instead, the physiological response of the
repeatedly exposed officers did not differ from that of the lesser
exposed officers. This latter finding may be elucidated by results
reported by Ohira and colleagues (2011) on lack of parallelism
between the psychological and the physiological responses in
conjunction with chronic job stress. Expressed differently, what
Ohira and colleagues (2011) observed was a psychophysiological
dysregulation where the brain to a lesser extent exhibited control
over the cardio vascular system in term of “accelerating it” during
stress when compared to the more vital regulatory dynamics of a
non-job-stress group.
Support from colleagues as resources
Moreover, a further important finding by Regehr et al. [12] was
that the level of reported social support was negatively associated
with to the reported level of stress all through the different stages
of the experiment. This dynamic was the most pronounced for
the period of measurement that was the furthest in time away
from the simulated traumatic situation concerning subjective
level of stress. While the main finding of repeated exposure being
related to a prolonged subjective stress response, the researchers
underline the importance of availability and maintenance of
social support along with the policing career (Regehr et al.,
2007). Essentially, the experimental condition suggested that the
amelioration of the stress response did not rely on actual access
to support or consolation; but rather on that support available
if needed. In parallel, the phenomenon of disengagement or
cynicism occur in a situation where civility from manager and/or
co-worker is sparse and satisfaction with work is low (Leiter et al.,
2016) this might give evidence of this event and an urgent need
for a supporting atmosphere among colleagues must be put to the
fore in order to protect the health of the officers
Varieties in post-traumatic development may undermine close relationships
In order to secure these needs in the light of trauma, mere
cognitive post-traumatic growth (PTG) seemed not sufficient
but needed to be complemented with active means or improved
behavioral skills i.e. behavioral PTG. In turn, the results presented
by Chopco et al. [16] themselves, indicated that the benefits
of behavioral growth need to be further scrutinized while
behavioral PTG but not cognitive PTG was positively associated
with PTSD symptoms. Moreover, behavioral PTG was associated
with relationship stress potentially undermining availability of
social support. The researchers discussed behavioral PTG and
relationship stress from the perspective of increased action
orientation coping and a vicious circle deterring close relationships
including communication about traumatic experiences in turn
resulting in less cognitive processing and more symptoms of
PTSD. This kind of process may also be confirmed by the finding
that that behavioral PTG tended to increase with age in police
officers.
Stress undermines the quality of professional performance
By definition, the workload tends to be higher in high crime
vulnerable areas then in low crime areas. Thereby the workload is
initially high independently of what work method is chosen when
policing these areas. To temporarily leave a potential ameliorating
effect from collegial support aside, stress is from experimental
design known to narrow the understanding of the actions of
fellow humans towards “making malicious” etc.. This tendency is
termed “the fundamental attribution error”.
The attribution error phenomenon was examined by Kubota
et al. [10] who found that the level of current stress was associated
with the degree of making the attribution error and to a larger
degree attribute action(s) to (uncivil) inherent qualities of the
performer. This tendency could be explained by a three step model
presented by Gilbert et al. [17] where under load (stress) the brain
simplifies interpretation and excludes a demanding qualified third
interpretative step of wider explanations (to actions). Moreover,
the interpretations of actions (of others) relies on both higher
and lower order cognitive functions, e.g. Arnsten [18] describes
how higher order functions are vulnerable to stress and more or
less ”shut down” from stress hormones. Consequently, this leaves
the individual to make interpretations using his or her lower
order cognitive functions meaning a fundamental attribution
error tendency also not corrected by higher order cognitive
resources. These effects could also shed light on the psychological
functioning of cynicism and complement the perspective of
professional burnout that also includes a dimension of reduced
personal professional accomplishment as described by Maslach
[13].
Furthermore, in the FBI Enforcement Bulletin article Graves
[19] states that “Cynicism often adversely affects officers”
productivity, impacts the morale of their colleagues, and chills
community relations. It also tends to breed a poor quality of life
for officers and their families.” When examining the s.c. zerotolerance
work method that is based on a high frequency of citizen
– police officer interactions it has been described as aggressive
Green [7], Fischer [20]. By frequent interactions law enforcement
overrule the tendency, otherwise often found in high crime areas,
to only charge more serious deviances and accepting and letting
go of not so serious deviances Klinger [5]. With a focus on police
officers health the frequent interactions of zero-tolerance tend to
lead to not only a higher level of stress but also to increased level
of cynicism Berg et al. [11]. Research indicates also that officers
working in high-criminal areas tend to show more cynicism than
officers in other areas Sobol [21]. This can be understood out
of a more general assumption that cynicism is associated with
“tendencies toward negative, and often disparaging, behavior”
Dean, Brandes & Dharwadkar [15].
Doing good
In the work method whereby setting boundaries is
balanced
with building relations the more negative stressful interactions
associated with for example making arrests are mixed with
more positive interactions with the citizens. Building relations
between individuals is in general considered as having positive
effects both for the individuals as well as for the society at large.
For example, interpersonal relationship has been found to be
associated with lower levels of psychological distress and the
perceiving of fewer social constraints in challenging situations
Danoff-Burg & Revenson [22]. It has also been shown that positive
and fair interactions initiated by the police will enhance citizens’
willingness to cooperate and obey police Tyler & Fagan[23].
Mazerolle et al. [24] found that even short, respectful and fair
interactions between police and citizens had positive effects on
the citizens’ willingness to comply and cooperate with the police.
When observing the two work methods described above and
their plausible direct effect on police officers and indirect effect
on citizens and society it is rather clear that a mix of setting
boundaries and building relations in the long run will be the most
effective work method. Regarding the health of police officers,
the balance between more stressful interactions in regard to
for example arrests can be counterpoised by the more positive
relationship building interactions thereby lowering the risk of
risking development of cynicism among police officers. Moreover,
a crucial side effect of this work method would be enhanced
cooperation between police and citizen thereby creating a more
effective policing and a safer society.
Discussion
Weitzer & Tuch [25] argued that citizens’ dissatisfaction with
the crime rates in relation to their neighborhood high-crime
area will influence their view of the police in a negative way.
There are several findings that point to the importance of wellestablished
relations between police and citizens and how those
relations are built. The police have to build knowledge of the
expectations of people in high-criminal areas Skogan [26]. There
is the importance of how police are acting when interacting with
citizens (procedural justice). Here respectful and polite are the
leading words as citizens “tend to focus more on process than the
outcome” Tyler TR [27].
As discussed earlier, police officer’s ability to form trust
Andersson Arntén & Archer [28] and acting with respect Andersson
Arntén et al. [29] may have profound effects on the society which
points to the advantage of the balanced work method. Moreover,
that same balanced work method is also beneficial as the result of
an interaction between law enforcement and citizens is associated
with who is initiating the contact. Rosenbaum et al. [30] found
that when a contact between citizens and police were of a negative
nature there was a tendency of citizens being less satisfied when
the contact was initiated by the citizen itself. The authors discuss
this propensity from the angle that expectations rather than
outcome may predict the experience. A further suggestion may be
that a healing dynamic or a positive spiraling process of building
resources in the vulnerable communities needs as a first step to
be initiated by the police in terms of relating in a caring way.
So, when a high rank officer of the Swedish Police on national
TV SVT Aktuellt July 5th 2018 requested that the people living in the vulnerable and special vulnerable areas needed to take a
considerably bigger responsibility for the criminal development
in their neighborhood it was done despite research results
[31]. To make residents in those areas be able to take a bigger
responsibility starts with
1) An understanding and responds to the expectations of
these residents regarding police and citizen encounters;
2) The building of good through police initiated interactions;
3) Building trust throw showing respect in all interactions
even in situations including those characterized of setting
boundaries and making arrests, and
4) Continuing police training to make this happen.
Furthermore, this high rang officer seemed to be unaware of
the conditions for health of police officers. Chopco et al. [16] relied on Deci and Ryans’ (2000), selfdetermination
notion, and discussed traumatic experiences
among police officers from the perspective of being a challenge
to fundamental psychological needs of experiencing own
competence, autonomy and relatedness.
In line with this, van der Werff et al. [32] found that resilience
to severe stress among police officers was related to personal
resources of increased structural connectivity of the brain
tentatively meaning the use of higher order cognitive resources
in regulating emotion. The resilient officers also rated less of a
stance of acceptance when regulating cognition and emotion.
Instead of accepting negative circumstances, those officers
being the most resilient, showed more of genuine presence in
terms of a suggested emotion and cognition regulating style
of proactivity and willingness to change. The above logically
promotes both resources of the local community and the health
of officers. In parallel, cynicism also shines with its absence and
all three fundamental human needs, not least ‘caring’ exemplifies
relatedness in its most advanced form.
As a conclusion the authors would like to quote Tyler (2005)
“Public consent and support of law enforcement are two of the
most critical tools on a police officer’s “belt.” People who believe
that the police are performing their duties with professionalism
and integrity are more likely to obey laws and support the system
by acting as witnesses, for example.”
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