The Content of Natural Radionuclides in the Fish of Lake Issyk-Kul - Juniper Publishers

 Oceanography & Fisheries - Juniper Publishers

Abstract

This work is devoted to the study of the features of biogenic migration of natural radionuclides in the conditions of Lake Issyk-Kul located in the north-eastern part of Kyrgyzstan. Lake Issyk-Kul is a high-mountainous, thermal, drain less reservoir with brackish water with a high content of natural uranium. This is due to climatic conditions, the geological structure of river valleys, and the peculiarities of the composition of river waters capable of extracting uranium from rocks. Calculations using the Erica tool 1.3 software showed that the natural uranium content in the water of Lake Issyk-Kul (0.809 Bq/l) is safe for living organisms of the aquatic ecosystem, the level of absorbed dose, accumulation and risk factors vary within the normal range. According to the Erica tool 1.3 database, low radiation doses (0-50 μGy/h) can stimulate the growth of aquatic plants. The species composition of the ichthyofauna of Lake Issyk-Kul consists of 22 species of fish, including 12 aboriginal and 10 acclimatized. The content of natural radionuclides (226Ra, 228Th and 212Pb) in the bone and muscle tissue of some fish species of Lake Issyk-Kul was investigated. It has been established that radionuclides are predominantly found in bone tissue in comparison with muscles, their concentrations vary within the limits of natural parameters.

Keywords: Water; Natural radionuclides; Fish; Issyk-Kul Lake

Introduction

Lake Issyk-Kul is located in the northeastern part of Kyrgyzstan, between the ranges of the Northern Tien Shan: Kungey-Ala-Too and Terskey-Ala-Too, at an altitude of 1609 meters above sea level. The lake is closed, with about 80 relatively small rivers flowing into it. The largest of them are Tyup and Jergalan, flowing from the east. The water is brackish (water salinity 5.90 ‰), so it does not freeze in winter. The volume of water is 1738 km3, the area of the water surface is 6236 km2, the average depth is 278 m, the maximum depth is 668 m. The length of Issyk-Kul from west to east is 182 km, and from south to north - 58 km. The climate is temperate maritime, with the lake having a softening effect in the region. Average January temperature: -2° -6°, average July temperature: + 17° + 21°. In the western mountains bordering the lake, only 115 mm of precipitation falls, on the eastern coast - about 600 mm [1-3]. According to the research of prof. Kovalsky [4], the waters of the rivers in the regions of the Issyk-Kul depression are enriched with natural uranium. The increased content of uranium in the waters should be associated not only with the climatic conditions of the regions, but also with the geological structure of river valleys, as well as with the peculiarities of the chemical composition of river waters capable of well extracting uranium from rocks. So, for example, if in the northern rivers of Russia (Northern Dvina, Lena, Neva, Kama), the uranium content fluctuates within (2-13) ×10-7 g/l, while in the rivers flowing into Lake Issyk-Kul, its concentration increases to (58-71) ×10-7 g/l [4]. The average uranium content in the water of Lake Issyk-Kul varies within (62-65) ×10-6 g/l [5]. In modern literature, a number of studies are presented on the topic of pollution, migration, accumulation of radionuclides in the environment and their biological effect on living organisms. [6-12]. Based on the above, the aspect of the biological effect of natural concentrations of uranium and products of its decay on living organisms of the aquatic ecosystem of Lake Issyk-Kul is poorly studied.

Materials and Methods

The content of natural radionuclides (226Ra, 228Th and 212Pb) in the bone and muscle tissue of some fish species of Lake Issyk-Kul has been investigated. 64 samples were prepared for gamma spectrometric analysis. The measurements were carried out on a GX4019 gamma spectrometer with Genie-2000 S 502, S501 RUS software. To obtain a stable equilibrium of radionuclides, the studied samples after their packing were stored from 25 to 180 days. The radionuclide activity in the sample on the day of spectrum measurement was calculated by the formula:

The Erica tool 1.3 application package is used for radioecological assessment of the state of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Knowing the content of radioactive elements in soil or water, the program calculates the accumulation of radionuclides by living organisms, absorbed radiation doses, and an assessment of the radiation risk factor. The element of the radioecological assessment consists of three levels, at the first level the radiation risk factor is assessed, if its value is low, then level 1 can be limited (Figure 2). If the value of the radiation factor is increased, then the action is recommended to continue the assessment at level 2. To assess the statistical distribution of indicators, level 3 is used [13,14].

To calculate the radiation risk factor using the Erica tool 1.3 program, we entered the data on the specific activity of uranium in the water of Lake Issyk-Kul. If the calculated value of the risk coefficient is higher than 1, then there is a possibility of accumulation of radionuclides by living organisms. The risk factor (RQ) was determined using the following formula:

Results and Discussion

The species composition of the ichthyofauna of Lake Issyk- Kul is not rich and consists of 22 species of fish, including 12 aboriginal and 10 acclimatized [15,16]. We have investigated the distribution of natural radionuclides (226Ra, 228Th and 212Pb) in the bone and muscle tissue of some fish species of Lake Issyk-Kul. For the analyzes, fish species with wide distribution were selected, their habitat, type of food, commercial value were considered:

1. Pike perch (Lucioperca Lucioperca. 1958) is a predator, a widespread acclimatized species, the basis of its food is chironomids, mysids, amphipods, from about one year old it begins to switch to a predatory type of food. Forms large accumulations during the feeding period in shallow waters, and mainly in areas of the lake with a lower salinity of water.

2. Issyk-Kul trout (Salmo ischchan Issykogegarkuni Lushin. 1932) - an acclimatized species, distributed throughout the lake, with the formation of pre-spawning accumulations in the estuarine areas, near shallow waters with a spawning substrate. The diet of trout is predominantly benthic, but it can switch to a predatory type of diet.

3. Issyk-Kul Chebachok (Leuciscus bergi Kaschkarov. 1925) - an aboriginal and rare species, found in small quantities in the southwestern and southeastern parts of the lake.

4. The research results showed that natural radionuclides are predominantly found in bone tissue in comparison with muscles, especially 226Ra (Table 1). Concentrations of natural radionuclides vary within the background values, for example, the 226Ra content in the total mass of a two-year-old pike perch (Lucioperca Lucioperca) was 0.61 Bq/kg per wet weight, the absorbed dose level was 0.081 μGy/h, and the risk factor was 0.008. Lower concentrations are typical for 228Th and 212Pb.

With the average uranium content in the water of Lake Issyk- Kul - 0.809 Bq/l, the following results were obtained (Table 2). Among the reference organisms, uranium is able to accumulate in aquatic plants (190.09 Bq/kg). The absorbed dose level was 4.56 μGy/h, it can vary in the range of 0.47 - 17.9 μGy/h. According to the Erica tool 1.3 database, absorbed doses in the range (0-50 μGy/h) do not have statistically significant negative biological effects on aquatic plants. At low doses of radiation, a slightly stimulating effect on growth is possible (by 1.2 times). For Lake Issyk-Kul, the greatest species diversity falls on the group of blue-green (Cyanophyta), diatoms (Bacillariophyta) and green (Chlorophyta) algae. The average value of the hazard coefficient for aquatic plants is (0.45). If the calculated value of the risk coefficient is higher than 1, then there is a probability of accumulation of radionuclides by living organisms (Figure 3). The estimated average uranium content in pelagic fish is 7.11 Bq/kg wet weight. The absorbed dose level was 0.17 μGy/h, it can vary in the range of 0.06 - 0.42 μGy/h (Figure 4).

According to the database of the Erica tool 1.3 software, no statistically significant negative biological effects on the fish organism are observed within these absorbed doses. It is known that uranium accumulates mainly in bone tissue, kidneys, gills, and then in the liver, and only a small part is retained in muscles. Since parts of fish organs: gills, liver and bones are usually not eaten by the population, the total daily dose for uranium established by the World Health Organization is no more than 50 Bq/kg [17,18].

Conclusion

Calculations using the Erica tool 1.3 software showed that the natural uranium content in the water of Lake Issyk-Kul (0.809 Bq/l) is safe for living organisms of the aquatic ecosystem, the level of absorbed dose, accumulation and risk factors vary within normal limits. According to the conclusions of the scientific of the UN Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation, the absorbed dose of 80 μGy/h is the threshold dose. The presented absorbed doses for reference organisms in Table 1 are much lower than this indicator. The content of uranium and other natural radionuclides (226Ra, 228Th and 212Pb) in certain fish species of Lake Issyk-Kul vary within the background values, mainly radionuclides are found in bone tissue as compared to muscles.

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 Current Research in Diabetes & Obesity - Juniper Publishers

Abstract

Background: Use of Allium cepa L. (Onion) as spice in traditional cooking, concoctions and preparations has long been established since ancient time. However, the implication of its mode of consumption on health benefits is inadequately considered or explored.

Objectives: This experimentally-controlled designed nutritional study aimed to determine and compare the effects of consumption of Allium cepa in its raw form and in mixed meal on body weight, glycemic tolerance/control and, lipid profile in diabetic rats.

Materials and Methods: Twenty one adult (170-200g) male Wistar rats were randomly categorized into three experimental groups (n=7, each): Diabetic Control (DC), Diabetic Onion Extract-Treated (DOE), and Diabetic Onion-supplemented Diet-Fed (DSO). Diabetes was inducted with 150 mg/dL, alloxan monohydrate solution intraperitoneally. Animals were fed according to the experimental design with water ad libitum for six weeks. Body weights and Fasting blood sugar (FBS) concentrations were measured twice weekly. LP and OGTT were conducted. Microsoft Excel and statistical SPSS program version 22 were used for data analysis. Results are expressed as mean ± SEM. Comparison between groups were made using Students’t-test and one way ANOVA.

Results: Consumption of onion in its raw (aqueous extract) form caused more reduction in blood glucose concentration (DOE - 38.14% versus DSO - 11.2%; P = 0.02) and body weight gain (DOE -7.71% versus DSO - 16.32%; P = 0.01), with improved lipid profile than when ingested in mixed meal (supplemented diet). Glycemic response curves peaked at 60 minutes of glucose challenge in DSO and DOE groups.

Conclusion: Mode of consumption of Allium cepa, influenced its therapeutic anthropometric and lipoglycemic effects in diabetic rats.

Keywords: Diabetic rats; Glycemic tolerance; Lipid profile; Mode of consumption; Onion; Weight gain

Abbreviations: FBS: Fasting Blood Sugar; OGTT: Oral Glucose Tolerance Test; ANOVA: Analysis of Variance; SPSS: Social Package for Social Science; SEM: Standard Error of Mean

Introduction

The use of onion as a nutraceutical has become of increasing interest in the recent years largely due to an increase in the availability of evidence-based findings demonstrating its numerous health benefits in treating diverse disease conditions. Allium cepa commonly known as “onion” is one of the most widely used vegetables in the world cuisine and is generally consumed in foods. Many health benefits of onion have been attributed to its several constituent organic and inorganic compounds such as flavonoids and organosulfur compounds [1-4]. Onions vary in size, shape, favour and colour (most common types being red, yellow, and white). Various research studies on onion revealed that onion possesses antioxidant [5], anti-inflammatory [6], hypoglycaemic [7], antibacterial [8], immune and bone boosting properties [9]. Onion is consumed in different forms which vary from one culture to another. Most often, onion is consumed as spice in traditional cooking, concoctions and preparations. While some people take onion in its raw form in some cuisine, some preferred it boiled or fried in prepared diets. Most studies investigating the potentiality of onion (Allium cepa) in human subjects and animal models administered the onion as a direct oral aqueous extract or gel while very few tried incorporating it into the test diet in a dry powder form. Whether the mode of consumption of this herbaceous plant has effect or not on its health benefits was the central focus of this study which investigated and compared the impact of mode of consumption of onion in its raw form and in mixed meal on body weight gain, glycemic tolerance/control and, lipid profile in diabetic rats with the rationale to provide basis for dietary selection, advice and recommendations for optimal therapeutic effects.

Materials and Methods

Preparation of aqueous extract of Allium cepa

The onion bulb was washed and properly cleaned with distilled water. The outer covering of the bulb was peeled off and the fleshy part of the onion was washed with distilled water and weighed. 226g of onion was homogenized with 50 ml of distilled water to a fine texture form with an electric blender. The mixture obtained was filtered using a fine muslin cloth to produce the extract. The extract was weighed and stored in a clean container, kept in refrigerator at 4°C. Fresh portions of the extract were prepared weekly.

Toxicity test

An acute toxicity test using modified stair-case method [10-12] was conducted for the extract. The rats were provided orally with increasing fixed doses of 1, 2, 3, and 4g of onion extract per kg body weight while the toxicity was assessed by mortality and behavioural changes in the rats.

Test feed and composition

The composition of the control and onion-supplemented diets in this study was prepared based upon the standard diet formulas used to assess weight gain in rodents during commercial feeding studies (Table 1).

Experimental animals and diets

Twenty-one male Wistar rats (Rattus norvegicus) weighing about 170-200g used for this study were obtained from the disease-free stock of Olu farm, Ibadan, Oyo state, Nigeria. The animals were kept in polypropylene cages with stainless wire mesh top in well ventilated animal house maintained at normal and standard laboratory conditions of temperature and relative humidity for two weeks to allow them acclimatize to the environment. During these two weeks, they were fed with commercially available standard rat feed (Ladokun feeds Nig. Ltd.) and water ad libitum. Replaceable numbered blotters papers were placed under each cage to catch the spilled diet that was measured to make up for the daily serving ration. The rats were weighed twice weekly to ensure that no rat outside the range of 170-200g was used at entry point.

Induction of diabetes

After two weeks of acclimatization, all rats were fasted overnight (15 hours) for diabetes induction achieved with freshly prepared alloxan monohydrate (Kermel chemicals, CHINA) dissolved in sterile normal saline at a dose of 150 mg/kg body weight. Diabetes was confirmed four days later using a glucometer (Fine Test Blood Glucose Monitoring System, OSANG Healthcare Co., Ltd., Korea). Rats with fasting blood sugar (FBS) level above 150 mg/dL were selected and grouped into three experimental groups according to the experimental design.

Experimental design

The animals were grouped into three groups (n = 7, each group) after induction as follows:

a) Group DC: Diabetic rats fed with normal diet (Control)

b) Group DOE: Diabetic rats fed with normal diet and treated with onion aqueous extract

c) Group DSO: Diabetic rats fed with onion-supplemented diet

To determine the effects of onion on body weight, lipid profile and glycemic status, rats in groups DC and DOE were fed with standard rat feed throughout the period of the study while DSO rats were fed with onion-supplemented diet only. In addition, DOE rats were treated with onion aqueous extract (4g/kg body weight/day) administered orally by orogastric cannular. The rats were monitored twice daily for food and water intake while body weight and FBS were assessed bi-weekly and recorded. The investigations using experimental animals were conducted in accordance with the internationally accepted principles for laboratory animal use and care [13] as found in the United States Guidelines (United States National Institutes for Health Publication No. 85-23, revised in 2017).

Blood collection and biological assay

Blood samples were collected from tail veins (for OGTT) and by cardiac puncture (for lipid profile). Blood glucose concentrations were measured using glucometer while blood samples obtained by cardiac puncture were stored in K₃ EDTA bottles for lipid profile analysis.

Glycemic tolerance test

After 15-hour overnight fast with free access to water, all animals in the groups were treated with oral D glucose load of 2g/kg body weight dissolved in distilled water and administered by flexible metal orogastric cannula. Thereafter, blood samples were withdrawn from the tail vein of each rat for blood glucose concentrations assessment taken at 30 minutes intervals for 2hrs.

Lipid profile test

The lipid profile was conducted at the onset and on the 6^th week of study for comparison. Blood samples from the Posterior Vena Cava vein were collected and transferred into the k3 EDTA (Ethylene Diamine Tetraacetic Acid) sample bottles. Samples were centrifuged at 3000 revolutions to obtain the plasma fractions which was kept in a refrigerator (at -70ºC) until used and the sera obtained were used for the biochemical assay of the lipid profile. Plasma concentration of total cholesterol (TC), high density lipoprotein (HDL) and Triacylglycerol (TAG) were measured by the enzymatic colorimetric method after centrifugation using a dry-chemical automatic analyzer AU-5200 OLYMPUS (Randox Laboratories, San Francisco, USA). LDL level was determined by the Friedewald formula [14] as follows:

VLDL (mg/dL) = TAG/5

LDL (mg/dL) = TC - VLDL – HDL

Statistical analysis

Microsoft Excel and statistical SPSS program version 22 were used for data analysis. Results are expressed as group mean ± SEM. Comparison between groups were made using Students’t-test and one way ANOVA. Significance level was set to P < 0.05.

Results

Effect of Allium cepaon body weight and weight gain

The initial and final mean body weights for each animal category are shown in Table 2. Onion consumption caused a significant (P < 0.05) decrease in mean weight gain in DSO (16.32%) and DOE (7.71%) rats compared with the diabetic control rats (28.74%). Difference in weight gain between DOE and DSO rats was significant (P = 0.01). The weight-lowering effect of onion in experimental diabetic rats was more pronounced in group treated with raw onion.

Effect of Allium cepaon glycemic status

The hypoglycemic effect of onion on venous mean FBS concentrations (mg/dL) in diabetic rats is shown in Table 3. A significant (P < 0.05) reduction in mean FBS concentrations was observed in both DOE and DSO rats compared with the control. However, the difference in their FBS values was comparably significant (P = 0.02). This observation revealed that raw (extract) onion has more antihyperglycemic effect than onion consumed in mixed meal.

Effect of Allium cepaon glycemic tolerance

The glycemic tolerance effect of onion was assessed by the incremental areas under the glycemic response curves as depicted in Figure 1. Onion enhanced glycemic tolerance in DSO and DOE rats compared with the controls. However, the tolerance effect was more improved with the raw form. The glycemic response to glucose load in all experimental groups peaked at 60 minutes of the 2 hour-duration.

Effect of Allium cepaon lipid profile

Figure 2 expresses the effect of onion on the lipid profile of the grouped diabetic rats. After 6 weeks, onion caused significant (P < 0.05) decrease in TC, TG and LDL concentrations and significant increase in HDL concentration in DSO and DOE rats compared with the controls. In this study, onion extract impacts more antilipidemic effect than onion-supplemented diet.

Discussion

This nutritional study determined and compared the effects of mode of consumption of Allium cepa on body weight, glycemic tolerance/control and, lipid profile in diabetic rats with the rationale to provide basis for dietary selection, advice and recommendations for optimal beneficial effects. Findings obtained revealed that onion has antiobesity, hypoglycemic and antilipidemic properties which are more pronounced when consumed fresh than when ingested in mixed meal.

Consumption of onion in this study significantly reduced weight gain in diabetic rats. Onion was administered in two forms: as supplementation in mixed meal and as aqueous extract. The orally administered aqueous extract exhibits better weight-lowering effect than the supplemented form as shown in Table 2. This observation interprets that consumption of onion as fresh bulb provides better results. However, many individuals are repugnant to taking onion in its raw form perhaps due to its nauseating smell or breath odour. As a result, most people preferred it in prepared mixed meal. Where an acute weight-lowering optimal effect is desired, consumption of onion in its raw form is advisable if no known allergy or adverse effects exhibited. To minimize the associated nausea, irritation or smell, raw onion can be taken sliced with vegetables, grains and salads. Few studies reported the toxicity of onions to certain animals such as dogs, cats, guinea pigs and many other animals. In this study, the stair case toxicity test was carried out to ensure that the maximum non-lethal dose (4g/kg body weight) was used to demonstrate the effects of onion in rats. This weight-lowering property of the onion may be attributed to its no fat or cholesterol, low calories content and rich source of quercetin, a type of antioxidant flavonoid that boosts metabolism and prevents fat accumulation [15]. Chartreuse onion contained the highest level of quercetin (163.3 mg/g DW) while it had low contents of other onions. Quercetin 3-glucoside and quercetin were documented in an average 93%, 82.6% and 77.8% of the quercetin glycosides in chartreuse, red and yellow onions respectively [16].

This study reveals that consumption of raw (extract) onion has more antihyperglycemic effect than when consumed in mixed meal as prepared in many traditional menus and cuisines in our environment. Allium cepa is an herbaceous plant that has been shown to provide a hypoglycemic effect by regulating the activities of certain enzymes involved in carbohydrate metabolism, increasing insulin secretion and sensitivity, and enhancing NADP+ and NADPH activities, due to its content of organosulfur compounds and flavonoids such as quercetin [1]. This antidiabetic property of onion is also expressed in its impact on glycemic tolerance and profile as seen by the decrease in the incremental areas under the glycemic response curves of DOE and DSO rats compared with the control as shown in Figure 1. Onion significantly enhanced glycemic tolerance in DSO and DOE rats with more remarkable effect in DOE rats. The glycemic response to glucose load in the experimental groups was observed to peak at 60 minutes of the glucose challenge which suggests that the blood sugar lowering effect of onion can be manifest after one hour postprandial. Human and animal studies have shown that eating onions may help control blood sugar, which is especially significant for people with diabetes or prediabetes. A study [17] in human subjects with type 2 diabetes demonstrated that eating 3.5 ounces (100 grams) of fresh red onion reduced fasting blood sugar levels by about 40 mg/dl after four hours. Additionally, an animal study [18] also revealed that onion consumption may benefit blood sugar control.

Impact of onion on lipid profile is depicted in figure 2. In this study, onion caused significant decrease in TC, TG and LDL-C concentrations with significant increase in HDL concentration in DOE and DSO rats. However, raw onion extract impacts more beneficial antilipidemic effect than the onion-supplemented diet. This finding also suggests that the optimal effect is derived when onion is consumed in fresh or raw form than in mixed meal. Onions contain antioxidants and compounds that fight inflammation, decrease triglycerides and reduce cholesterol levels [18]. These potent anti-inflammatory properties may also help reduce high blood pressure and protect against blood clots. Quercetin a flavonoid antioxidant that’s highly concentrated in onions, inhibits the enzyme α-glucosidase, thus prevents the formation of D-glucose from oligosaccharides and disaccharides, and delays the absorption of glucose from the intestine [19]. Being a potent anti-inflammatory agent, it also helps in decreasing heart disease risk factors, such as high blood pressure [20]. The effect of onion on lipid profile in this study is similar to the findings of other studies using human and animal models which reported decrease in cholesterol and triglycerides concentrations with concomitant increase in HDL concentrations [20,21].

Nutrition habits have an important place in preventing and controlling DM which causes high health expenditures due to its acute and chronic complications. Although insulin therapy for Type 1 DM has no alternative option, however, alternative treatment methods for Type 2 DM disease have become important because oral antidiabetic drugs cause undesirable side effects. In this regard, several plant-derived products and naturally-derived products are currently used to provide support in treatment of diabetic patients. Consequently, screening of medicinal plants for therapeutic purposes is important in drug development as they may possess hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic and antioxidant activities which may be effective in the treatment of diabetes mellitus.

Conclusion

This study reveals that onion caused significant decrease in mean body weight gain with improved glycemic tolerance/control and lipid profile in experimental diabetic rats. It also revealed that consumption of onion in its raw form exerts quicker and better health benefits than when taken in mixed meals where the onion has been subjected to processing effects of boiling, frying, grilling, and so on. Therefore, based on the above findings, we conclude that the choice of mode of consumption of onion is significant when considering onion for therapeutic purposes.

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Implications for Dairy Cattle of Modern Technological Advances (II) Physiological and Behaviour Monitoring Technology - Juniper Publishers

 Dairy & Veterinary Sciences - Juniper Publishers

Introduction

In an industry as highly competitive as agriculture, the perpetually increasing pressure to produce cheaper sources of protein is further suffocating already meagre profit margins. In the past decade, in particular, a surge in the number of commercially available precision-farming products, utilising technologies common to the research sector are helping some farmers transform their business operations. Wearable technologies have become commonplace on farms looking to gain a competitive edge. Cow collars, anklets, smart ear-tags and indwelling rumen-boluses take advantage of low-cost, mass-produced sensor components to offer multi-faceted health-monitoring solutions. Accelerometers monitor animal movement, gyroscope sensors record ruminal contractions, ion-sensitive glass electrodes track fluctuations in rumen pH, thermistors and thermocouples register temperature and Bluetooth or radiotelemetric elements transmit data to receiver stations which push data up to the cloud for analysis, interpretation and translation into useable information for clients. In addition, with continued research into the use of infrared-thermography, along with computer-vision and artificially intelligent machine-learning technologies for use in animal health monitoring and biometric analysis, it is likely that we will continue to see an increase in monitoring technologies of an even less-invasive nature.

Proposed benefits

Electronic identification (EID) technologies are commonly incorporated into livestock monitoring devices and provide an easily accessible method of monitoring multiple performance parameters for individual animals. Data gathered from smart- devices or machinery can be analysed to highlight areas where the farm is excelling or where practices need adjustment. The value of single animals can also be analysed and poor performing members can be removed from the herd.

The benefits of precision-farming technologies appear obvious; earlier disease detection is particularly beneficial in large herds where animals are not examined regularly on an individual basis or where there is a high risk of contagion. Rumination, recumbency and pH monitoring are being used to the benefit of the farmer to detect metabolic disorders such as subacute ruminal acidosis and infrared thermography has the ability to detect subtle changes in body temperature, indicating a departure from good health. This can be particularly useful in the detection of diseases such as mastitis, which costs the US dairy industry an estimated $2 billion annually, or about 11% of total U.S. milk production quite apart from the great concern in terms of animal welfare. A study of infrared thermography on dairy farms [1] (Figure 1) showed a significant relationship between udder surface skin temperature and somatic cell count in collected milk samples. Sensitivity and specificity in the classification of udder health were: 78.6% and 77.9%, respectively [2]. These may seem relatively low but given the ease of imaging udders versus obtaining somatic cell counts, they are an excellent start in evaluating udder health.

Where else might we see an increase in temperature in inflamed tissue? Ompahilitis in newborn calves is a significant health issue One recent study showed the maximum temperature of the lateral umbilical region in calves aged less than 30 days to be 35.7 ±1.8°C in a control group of calves and 37.0±1.1°C in the omphalitis group this being significantly different at p = 0.002 [3]. Given the low cost of handheld non-contact thermal imagers this would be a very valuable tool for diagnosis by the farmer of umbilical infection in young calves.

Lameness is a common affliction in dairy herds and is responsible for 10.4% of all dairy cows culled in the UK [4]. The cost of replacements is high and therefore early detection of the condition is critical so that swift treatment and resolution can occur. This not only has positive welfare benefits for the animal but saves the farmer direct costs associated with culling and the indirect costs associated with rearing a replacement heifer. Thermography to detect hoof lesions associated with lameness by measuring the changes in coronary band and hoof skin surface temperature can be really valuable (Figure 2) [5]. Perhaps more helpful is digital technology detecting changes in locomotion. Accelerometers (Figure 3) can readily detect changes in locomotion significantly earlier than simple human observation shows a lameness to be developing [6] and software packages such as Cow-Gait have been developed to monitor locomotion [7]. But as Alsaaod and colleagues have noted [8] technology to detect lameness and develop algorithms in evaluating locomotor data is widely discussed but we have very few papers documenting decisions over when to act in individual animals with subclinical lameness.

Accurate estrus detection too is critical to a dairy enterprise. Visual assessment is not always reliable, bulling cows are easily missed when not being directly observed and each unnoticed estrus period results in a 21-day extension to an animal’s calving interval. The advent of modern technology allows signs of oestrus to be recorded and alerts sent to the farmer or technician performing artificial insemination (AI), along with a time that is best to serve the cow, resulting in increased conception rates. Similarly, detection of calving is equally important should the animal need assistance as the loss of a calf due to avoidable circumstances is particularly disappointing. Accelerometers attached to head collars (Figure 4) determine movements of the head rather than the whole animal and these systems such as SMARTBOW have been shown to detect behaviours associated with estrus [9]. Thermography can be a useful tool also – in one study nine anatomical locations (vulva area, tail head, muzzle, front feet, rump, cheek, neck, and withers) but not eye or flank exhibited an increase in radiated temperature during the last 48 h before estrus [10].

Dealing with Data

The amount of information obtained from a set of monitoring devices from thermal imaging, movement detection, ruminal boluses and so on can be large to the extent of being completely unmanagemeable. Here the employment of artificial intelligence is crucial [11,12]. Machine learning can allow appropriate weighting of data regarding milk composition and electrical conductivity to detect subclinical mastitis, a huge problem in the dairy industry. Lactoferrin concentration, sodium levels and protein concentration were found mlore predictive in one study than data such as concentration and milk yield [13].

Potential Drawbacks

Drawbacks to precision farming technologies are limited but noteworthy. Devices incorporate a host of technologies as discussed above, but as of yet, there is no unified solutions capable of recording all of the measurable parameters already discussed, only a combination. Each company producing such wearable devices is fighting for a market share and is in control of data gathered through their devices. Analysis and interpretation of said data will vary. There are currently no standards governing analysis techniques concerned with livestock monitoring data, which involves the use of multiple algorithms [1] and evidence suggests that the interpretation of this data can be quite varied [2].

Mobile monitoring devices are susceptible to physical damage, environmental exposure and failure of transmitter or sensor components. Battery life varies greatly between devices and is a key consideration when selecting a compatible solution as device initial purchase outlays are often considerable and even costprohibitive for many farmers.

A last potential deleterious effect is that too great a reliance on technology may lead to farmers paying much less attention to their animals with a reduction in welfare. Having said that the 24:7 ability to monitor the cattle and the use of AI (artificial intelligence not insemination in this case!) to correlate the data arising from the digital technology noted above can only be of benefit to the animals. A herdsman’s ‘gut feeling’ about the state of his or her animals has always been seen as a key part of dairy farming but detailed information about locomotion, behavioural changes, body temperature or changes occurring in disease cannot be anything but beneficial.

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Environmental Conditions as Epigenetic Modulator of Craniofacial Growth and Development Phenotypes a Mini Review - Juniper Publishers

 Biotechnology & Microbiology - Juniper Publishers

Abstract

Environmental variation is translated into phenotypic variation based on how the same genotype can produce a variety of phenotypes across a range of environmental circumstances. Traits showing greater phenotypic variation are either under less direct genetic control and/or mature less rapidly. As expected, the vertical aspects of mandibular growth, which are the least mature in the craniofacial complex, showed the most pronounced effects, developing three types of phenotypes, where normodivergent and hypodivergent have a good facial, but hyperdivergents are the real problem, because they decrease their growth, they are increasing the incidence and prevalence, and with them, are increasing bad functional and esthetics on the population. The environmental conditions that are associated to hyperdivergent phenotype are masticatory loading during early facial growth and airway obstructive problems.

Introduction

It seems reasonable to expect that complex, highly intrincated objects will function less if they are modified, because even small alterations are likely to have potential deleterious consequences. If we compare primates in general with human linage in particular, heads appear to be no less morphologically conservative than the rest of the body, and possible even more evolvable, despite its complexity [1]. Comparison of genetic and craniofacial variation among human population suggest that most changes in craniofacial from among recent humans occurred from random, unselected genetic changes rather than from natural selection [2, 3]. Has been seen during the process of growth and development, that regulation of local growth (of different craniofacial modules) occurs through interactions between genes (that cause skeletogenic cells to synthesize, resorb, or otherwise modify skeletal tissue), and stimuli from other genes or cells. Such interactions between cells and their environment (which includes other cells) are generally categorized as epigenetic interactions, of which are several types that regulate most bone growth. Then, we have secondary epigenetic interactions between bone and neighboring tissues. Such interactions preserve functioning during complex growth, even when the growth involves many different tissues that grow all at different rates under different mechanisms of control [4]. These interactions also permit morphological variations that range from minor differences between members of the same species to novel phenotypes [2,3].

Craniofacial Phenotypes

Most craniofacial, dentoalveolar, and occlusal traits show a quantitative, often normal, distributions of phenotypes. Traits showing such distributions are polygenetic, due to the actions and interactions of multiple genes [5]. It follows that variation in such traits must be due to genetic, epigenetic, and environmental influences. The relative contribution of genes to phenotypic expression varies depending on the environments in which they are expressed. The way in which environmental variation is translated into phenotypic variation is based on the norm of reaction [6], which states that the same genotype can produce a variety of phenotypes across a range of environmental circumstances. Traits showing greater phenotypic variation are either under less direct genetic control and/or mature less rapidly than traits showing less phenotypic variation. For example, modern day Finns exhibit substantially larger gonial and mandibular plane angles, with a 6% decrease in mandible length, despite overall skull size increases, compared to Finnish samples from the 15^th and 16^th centuries [7]. Since the time span was insufficient for genetic changes to have occurred, the same genotypes must have been adapting to different environmental factors. As expected, the vertical aspects of mandibular growth, which are the least mature in the craniofacial complex, showed the most pronounced effects [8].

This is how we stablished different phenotypes for traits that are genetical controlled in craniofacial structures, in which vertical aspect of mandible is the latest trait in mature. That suppose then three types of phenotypes, where normodivergent and hypodivergent are forward rotators, in other words with normal facial growth, and both phenotypes have a harmonic development [9,10]. Hyperdivergents are the real problem, because we have seen that over time, they are increasing the incidence and prevalence, and with them, are increasing bad functional and esthetics consequences, with significant decreases of the posterior aspect of manbible [8,11,12].

Hyperdivergent Etiology

The etiology of hyperdivergent phenotype appears to be environmental, due to postural adjustments related with compromised airways and weak masticatory musculature. Changes in diet and food processing technology post industrial revolution, have contribute to some proportion of variations in facial size and shape [2]. Human diets since the Middle Paleolithic have changed substantially in content [13-15] and in how they are processed through cooking, soaking, leaching, and grinding [16- 18]. Food processing improves digestibility, but also makes food softer and smaller in particle size, requiring less occlusal force per chew and fewer chewing cycles per unit of food [1,19, 20]. In turn, softer and more processed foods are widely hypothesized to lead to less facial growth, especially in the lower face and the alveolar crests, because of the potential effects of force-generated strain [21,22]. While one might expect nutritional improvements since the Middle Paleolithic to contribute to increases in overall cranial size [23], the evidence points to a trend towards smaller facial size, with the most dramatic decreases occurring after the Neolithic. Comparisons of Nubian populations prior to and after the introduction of agriculture show significant reductions in many mid- and lower facial dimensions including infraorbital height (7.8%), masseter origin length (26.3%), mandibular corpus length (22%), and mandibular symphysis thickness (15.3%)-despite concurrent increases in brain size [24,25].

Environmental conditions that can modulate craniofacial phenotypes

No human studies have examined the effects of masticatory loading during early facial growth, when such effects are likely to be greatest, and none have quantified strains or site-specific growth rates. Most experimental data on facial growth responses to masticatory loading come from studies on non-human anthropoids and other mammalian models. One primate study [22,26,27] compared 19 adult squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus) raised on soft food diets with 24 controls raised on hard food diets; another study [22, 23] compared 16 adult baboons (Papio cynocephalus) who were raised on a hard diet for two years with 24 baboons raised on a soft diet. In both studies, animals who chewed harder food had significantly wider and taller faces, thicker mandibular corpora, and taller palates. However, primates raised on softer food often had serious malocclusions from narrowed maxillary arches, rotated, and displaced teeth, crowded premolars, and palatal arching, suggesting abnormal growth patterns. A related study on macaques obtained similar results, but also showed that Haversian remodeling rates were higher in monkeys fed hard food [28]. Experiments on non-primates reveal a similar picture [1,2,29].

On the other hand, airway problems have been associated with hyperdivergent phenotypes. On this pathway, there is some statistical support for an association between craniofacial disharmony and pediatric sleep-disordered breathing, however, in children with obstructive sleep apnea and primary snoring, compared with the controls, could be regarded as having marginal clinical significance (e.g., an increased ANB angle of less than 2º) [30]. Evidence for a direct causal relationship between craniofacial structure and pediatric sleep-disordered breathing is unsupported by Katyal´s (2013) meta-analysis. There is strong support for reduced upper airway sagittal width in children with obstructive sleep apnea (representing adenoid hypertrophy) [3,31]. Besides these results, there are some promising studies that have statistical results not only on the sagittal plane, but also on the vertical plane, that is what we expose in this new way of understanding craniofacial growth, were vertical plane affects directly sagittal plane. The investigation group of the author have preliminar results were the saggital of the upper airway is associated to hyperdivergent pediatric population.

Conclusion

Environmental conditions such as obstructive airway and weak muscles can modulate craniofacial phenotypes. When these variables are present, the face turn to limit it´s growth on the vertical posterior aspect of mandible due to be the latest craniofacial trait on mature and generate an hyperdivergent phenotype.

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Assessing the Amount of Blood Losses and the Blood Needed in different types of Orthognathic Surgery (Corrective Jaw Surgery) - Juniper Publishers

 Dentistry & Oral Health - Juniper Publishers

Abstract

Purpose: To use finite element analysis (FEA) and computerized lifetime prediction algorithms to evaluate the biomechanical behavior and fatigue lifetime of a full-arch maxillary prosthesis supported by two conventional implants and two zygomatic implants in both hybrid and quad designs.

Methods: A commercially available titanium zygomatic implant system, a commercially available titanium conventional dental implant system, and a standardized sawbone human skull model were scanned using micro-computed and cone-beam computed tomography. Three dimensional (3D) models were created in Mimics. Advanced maxillary atrophy was determined on the human skull and simulated using 3D segmenting and editing tools. Finite element volume meshing was completed in Simpleware, then exported to ABAQUS where material characteristics were assigned to each respective part. The following three occlusal load scenarios were considered in this study: 1.) 150 N uniformly distributed; 2.) 150 N in the anterior region and 250 N in the posterior region; 3.) 178 N in the anterior region and 489 N in the posterior region. The von Mises stresses for each design were analyzed and plotted, and the static results were used to predict the fatigue lifetime of the zygomatic implants in FE-Safe.

Results: The maximum von Mises stress in the surrounding bone tissue was located in the crestal bone at the sites of zygomatic implants. For zygomatic implants, the maximum von Mises stress was in the abutment connection area. All values were within the bone resorption thresholding values and the limit of material strength. The fatigue lifetime for the zygomatic implants in the hybrid zygomatic implant-supported prosthesis was predicted as 1.937E+14 cycles under the maximum loading for this study. The quad-based zygomatic implant system had a lifetime prediction of 2.08E+14 chewing cycles under maximum loading.

Conclusion: Peak static stresses were found in the abutment connection of zygomatic implants and crestal bone surrounding the zygomatic implant. Therefore, additional concern should be placed on these areas, for they are most likely to fail first. The fatigue lifetime predicted for the titanium zygomatic implant in each given scenario using FE-based lifetime prediction exceeded the prediction of 40 years of service time.

Keywords: Zygomatic; Implant; Prosthesis; FEA; Fatigue

Abbreviations: Finite element analysis = FEA

Introduction

Orthognathic Surgery (Corrective Jaw Surgery) involves moving the bones of the upper or lower jaw or both. The jaws are lengthened or shortened, moved up or down, in or out, resulting in a more harmonious bite and facial appearance. Orthognathic surgery is needed when jaws and teeth do not meet correctly [1]. Orthognathic surgery for the treatment of facial skeletal deformities that result in significant malocclusion is considered medically necessary if the medical appropriateness criteria are met [2]. Maxillofacial orthognathic surgery is widely practiced globally, and it is well established because of its capacity to correct many dentofacial deformities [3]. although surgical precision is important, clinicians should also pay attention to other parameters such as the operating time and intra-operative blood loss. Interested in the expected operating time and anticipated need for homologous transfusion [4,5]. A more accurate prediction of operating time and blood loss could help the surgeon and anesthesiologists improve perioperative management. Guidelines should be drawn up for the cross matching of blood units to prepare for elective orthogenetic procedures [6,7]. Patients would then be better informed about the likelihood of a transfusion occurring before they undergo the surgery [8-10].

In medicine and maxillofacial and dental surgeries, “extensive blood loss” refers to the loss of 25% or more of the body’s total blood volume. Among the causes of extensive bleeding are trauma and surgery, among which blood loss during surgery accounts for a larger share [10,11]. Extensive blood loss can endanger a person’s life, so that if this lost volume is not compensated, insufficient blood flow will eventually lead to irreversible functional impairment of the body’s organs. Therefore, if the patient experiences extensive blood loss during orthognathic surgery, it should be replaced in proportion to the volume of blood lost by injecting blood products; otherwise, it can be problematic for the patient. On the other hand, the amount of blood loss during orthognathic surgery is very different, so that in the study of Rummasak et al. This amount was calculated from 200 ml to 3550 ml. Also, in the study of Rammer et al. [12]. this amount was obtained from zero to 4600 ml. Despite extensive research in the field, studies have so far investigated single factors of importance for intraoperative blood loss. Increasing knowledge of the various interplays between these factors may provide a broader understanding of intraoperative blood loss (Figure 1), [6,13,14]. This would improve preoperative patient information and assist staff in the planning and performance of surgical procedures. Therefore, accurate estimation and prediction of blood loss during orthognathic surgery is very important. The more accurate this estimate, the more prepared the surgical staff is to deal with potential risks during surgery and give the surgeon and anesthesiologist the prognosis for the necessary treatments [15]. The patient himself is aware of the possibility of blood transfusion before surgery, since it seems that no studies have been done to compare the amount of blood loss during different types of orthognathic surgeries despite the importance of the issue, so in this study, the rate of blood loss during various types of orthognathic surgery in patients from March 2019 to April 2021 in Shahid Beheshti Hospital, Iran. They underwent orthognathic surgery, which was evaluated and compared by the professors’ surgical team.

Material and Methods

According to similar studies and using the formula for determining the sample size to compare the two means, 11 patients in each group were calculated with 5% confidence and 80% power. According to the 5 existing groups, a total of 55 patients were included in the study. However, for more certainty and the possibility of dropping samples, 95 patients were included in the study and 3 patients were excluded from the study during surgery. 92 patients requiring orthognathic surgery (54 females and 38 males) were included in the study regardless of the type of surgery in one group of maxillofacial and duodenal. All of these patients underwent orthodontic treatment. A respected colleague of anesthesiologists performed all surgeries in the hospital of the School of Dentistry and Anesthesiology. The researcher completed files for all patients before surgery, including name, age, sex, date of surgery, medical history, history of use, and drug sensitivity.

The amount of blood loss, which is calculated below, was also entered in the file prepared by the researcher. He was also informed that the patient’s information was confidential. Inclusion criteria included no history of hemorrhagic disease, no effective drug for coagulation and completion of orthodontic treatment in patients requiring orthognathic surgery. Patients with coagulation disorders in preoperative evaluation, complications during surgery (any problems that lead to excessive surgical prolongation), and abnormal increase in pressure during surgery due to differences in the amount of blood loss during surgery compared to the patient Healthy were excluded from the study. An oral and maxillofacial surgeon and a respected colleague of anesthesiologists with the same conditions, under induction anesthesia, performed all surgeries in patients who were eligible to participate in the study.

The anesthesia technique was controlled by lowering blood pressure; the rate of blood loss in these patients ocularly. The amount of bleeding was calculated based on the number of blood-stained gases and the amount of bleeding in the suction according to the following method: The amount of blood loss in these patients was calculated ocularly based on the amount of bleeding based on the number of blood-stained gases and the amount of bleeding in suction according to the following method: The number of 3-inch × 3inch blood-stained gases and the amount of suctioned blood volume were recorded separately for each patient surgery [6,16]. Each 3.3-bloodstained gas contains 12 milliliters of blood, so the number of blood-stained gases multiplied by 12 milliliters was added to the volume of suctioned blood, since this volume included the volume of lavage fluid in the surgical site. The volume of fluids consumed was also reduced and the result was equal to the amount of actual blood loss of the patient. In the end, all patients were identified and statistically evaluated based on the amount of bleeding by dividing the number of operations (one or two jaws), different types of jaw surgeries (Class II and Class III), age and sex. Data were described by means and mean deviation and comparisons were by test Mann-Whitney was performed (α = 0.05). 

Results

The operating time was calculated for each type of orthognathic procedure as the duration from the start time, when the local anesthetic solution was injected, to the end time, when the oral mucosal wound was closed. The intra-operative EBL for each procedure was calculated by weighing the surgical gauze swabs and measuring the contents of the suction bottle (with adjustments made for saline irrigation used) [17]. The hemoglobin level and hematocrit value (packed-cell volume) were obtained on the preoperative day and first postoperative day. Surgical procedures. Were categorized as either maxillary or mandibular and were further subdivided for the analysis [18]. All data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Science (Windows version 10; SPSS Inc., Chicago, The United States). The two-tailed Pearson correlation test was used to assess the bivariate correlation between EBL and operating time, and the change of hematocrit value. A probability level of P<0.05 was accepted as being significant. Results In this study, the number of patients was 95, three of whom were excluded due to vascular injury during surgery. 92 patients including 54 women and 38 men with a mean age of 22±2.65 years were included in the study. Table 1 shows that the mean bleeding in class II is slightly higher than class III (Table 2). In addition, the amplitude of dispersion and median in class III is higher than class II. Mann-Whitney test showed that the amount of bleeding in the two groups was not significantly different (P=0.432). The results show that the mean, amplitude and median of bleeding in patients with double surgery the jaw was longer than that of people with single jaw surgery. Due to the abnormal distribution of data, Mann-Whitney test showed that the rate of bleeding in patients with maxillofacial surgery was significantly higher than those with maxillofacial surgery (P <0.001).

Table 1: Mean, standard deviation, minimum, maximum and median bleeding and statistical test results in two types of skeletal problems.

Skeletal class	Number	Average	Standard deviation	The least	Most	Middle	Test statistics	Man-Whitney test result
class I	17	370.28	189.04	168	632	230	Z=0.741	P=0.432
class II	75	346.88	188.51	101.01	760	330	Z=0.741	P=0.432

 

 

Table 2: Mean, standard deviation, lowest, highest, and median in class II and III subjects by type of maxillofacial surgery and statistical test result.

Type of surgery	Skeletal class	Number	Average	Standard deviation	The least	Most	Middle	Test statistics	Man-Whitney test result
A jaw	class II	9	198.88	20.35	168.00	230.00	197.00	Z=2.50	P=0.007
Two jaws	class III	29	158.01	60.13	92.00	300.00	138.00	Z=2.50	P=0.007
A jaw	class II	8	582.75	48.43	501.00	629.00	590.00	Z=2.07	P=0.050
Two jaws	class III	48	480.12	135.72	290.00	750.00	456.00	Z=2.07	P=0.050

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Discussion

One of the most important problems of orthognathic surgeries is blood loss during surgery. This study was performed to measure the amount of bleeding in different types of orthognathic surgeries so that it can introduce orthognathic surgeries with high risk of bleeding as a source. In this study, the amount of bleeding in single-jaw surgeries, regardless of the jaw, was operated and the direction of jaw movement was significantly less than double-jaw surgeries [1,19]. The need for cross-matched blood units for orthognathic surgery in healthy individuals with an expected blood loss of less than 500 mL is debatable. It is not essential, or even desirable, to replace all blood lost during the surgery because an adult patient with normal cardiopulmonary function can compensate for up to a 20% loss of circulating blood volume. Physicians have a duty to reduce the amount of blood units wasted and to prepare realistic guidelines on how much blood should be cross matched for elective orthogenetic procedures [4,7]. The authors of a study that assessed the need for preoperative autologous blood donation in patients undergoing orthognathic surgery noted the low frequency of transfusion in lower-jaw surgery and concluded that the need for blood transfusion is unlikely [20]. Hence, we believe it is unnecessary to cross match blood for adult patients of ASA physical status I who are to undergo single- or double-jaw osteotomies. A TTS policy is adequate for these patients. In general, it should be said that in terms of the effect of factors such as age, sex, etc., this study was not different from other studies, both in terms of implementation and results. The highlight of this study was the effect of the type of surgery on the amount of bleeding, which showed that surgery in class II patients is more likely to bleed than in class III or double jaws.

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